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Southern  Branch 
of  the 

University  of  California 

Los  Angeles 

Form  L-1 


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This   book   is   DLIK  on    the   last   date   stamped   beloi 


JAN  2  3  1928 
m  9      I9^a 

OCT  2  S  1929 
DEC  7      1931 

wJUH  1  1  '^^* 

^9  1939 

1 

.vuv   c^   i^^^ 

NOV  1  0  \^^ 

«^AIf  1  5  136a, 

Fonii  l,-9-10m-3,'27 

• 

LOYAL  CITIZENSHIP 


fainting  by  tdu-ard  Liunmons 


Fig.  1.   Justice,  the  spirit  of  America. 


LOYAL  CITIZENSHIP 


BY 


Thomas  Harrison  Reed,  \.P>.,  LL.  V>. 

Professor  of  Municiixil  (lovrrnnirnt 

Univcrsily  of  California 

Aullior  of  '"Form  and  Funclions  of 

American  Governmenl" 


Ilhistraird  irilli  }'2-2  ciKirmiiKjs  from 
pli()l(Mjraphs  and  drawiiuj:; 


<J^4!V^0^CALi^0PMtA 

$outH£t^w.  Branch 

47878 

Yonkers-on-ITiidson,  Now  York 

WORLD   liOOK  COMPANY 

1922 


WORLD  BOOK  COMPANY 

THE  HOUSE  OF  APPLIED  KNOWLEDGE 
Established,  1905,  by  Caspar  W.  Hodgson 

YONKERS-ON-HUDSON,   NeW  YoRK 

2126   Prairie  Avenue,   Chicago 


At  a  moment  when  the  fabric  of  cm- 
civilization  is  shaken  by  world  tmmoil 
and  unrest  it  is  easy  to  realize  the  impor- 
tance of  erecting  in  the  minds  of  the  future 
rulers  of  this  country  firm  foundations  of 
civic  conduct.  To  that  end  this  book  offers 
for  their  instruction  certain  fundamental 
truths    of    economics    and    government 


BLC-2 


Copyright,  1922,  by  World  Book  Company 
Copyright  in  Great  Britain 

All  rights  reserved 


PRINTED  IN  U.S.A. 


_'^'  PREFACE 

THE  course  that  this  text  is  dosigiicd  to  fit  has 
for  its  purpose  the  training  of  pupils  for  citizen- 
ship. To  this  end  two  things  are  essential:  first,  to 
give  the  pupil  the  necessary  niiniinuni  of  Uhonn ledge 
of  the  institutions  and  principles  of  government  and 
society — old  Civil  Government  reduced  to  its  lowest 
terms  plus  new  Economics  and  Sociology  simplified 
to  his  understanding;  and,  second,  to  inculcate  the 
habit  of  civic-mindedness  not  merely  by  example  and 
precept  but  by  practice  as  well. 

The  first  of  these  essentials — supplying  necessary 
information — the  text  carries  out  directly,  but  with 
the  qualification  that  the  details  of  state  and  local 
government,  so  far  as  they  depart  from  the  general 
pattern,  are  to  be  supplied  by  the  teacher  or  through 
special  reports  on  the  part  of  the  pupil. 

The  second  essential — inculcating  the  habit  of 
civic-mindedness — cannot  be  achieved  without  the 
teacher's  own  patriotic  and  devoted  interest.  The 
matter  of  interesting  the  pupil  in  the  problems  of 
citizenship  has  been  given  too  little  attention.  It 
has  been  assumed  that  because  children  twelve  to 
fiftpen;^0aFS'of  agQ-are  a. 'long  iv.ay\  fr6ui;t{ie  b^dlot 
the'y  can  be  taught  only  by  abstractions  about  citi- 
zenship.;* They*  arp;-liC)W'6\^r.  :in(jmbVrs'\jf.lJu^  icom- 
munily  and  constantly  sustain  civic  relations.  They 
can  be  taught  the  civic  point  of  view  more  effectively 
by  the  continued  conscious  practice  of  civic  virtues 
than  in  any  other  way.  IVIany  of  the  'X.mc  Activi- 
ties" are_based_oiLlhe^d(^^  to 
"work  for  the  community  welfare.    The  teacher  may 


vi  Preface 

well  keep  in  mind  the  following  passage  from  John 
Dewey  {Moral  Principles  in  Education),  "What  the 
normal  child  continuously  needs  is  not  so  much 
isolated  moral  lessons  upon  the  importance  of  truth- 
fulness and  honesty,  or  the  beneficent  results  that 
follow  from  a  particular  act  of  patriotism,  as  the 
formation  of  habits  of  social  imagination  and  concep- 

re  topics  and  activities  suggested  at  the  ends  of 
the  chapters  are  very  numerous;  there  are  far  more 
of  them  than  can-be  effectively  utilized.  It  is  ex- 
pected that  the  teacher  will  choose  among  them. 

In  the  attempt  to  dramatize  the  problems  of  gov- 
ernment for  the  pupils  the  teacher  will  find  brieL 
plays,  masques,  or  pageants  useful.  They  have  been 
occasionaHy^uggested  under  the  head  of  "Civic 
Activities,"  but  this  does  not  by  any  means  exhaust 
the  possibilities  of  their  use.  The  teacher  will  find 
helpful  the  following:  Payne,  F.  Ursula,  Plays  and 
Pageants  of  Citizenship;  Tucker  and  Ryan,  His- 
torical Plays  of  Colonial  Days;  Mackaye,  Percy, 
The  New  Citizenship. 

The  references  are  few  in  number  and  are  almost  all 
to  books  commonly  used  and  not  too  difficult.  This 
does  not  mean  that  periodical  literature  should  not 
be  largely  relied  on  for  the  report  work  of  the  pupils. 
Every  public  library  has  indexes  to  periodical  litera- 
ture, and  the  sooner  the  pupil  learns  to  use  them  the 
better.  A  list  of  the  most  useful  periodicals  which 
should,  if  possible,  be  included  in  the  school  or  class 
library  is  given  in  Appendix  1. 


^AA 


contp:nts 

PART  ONE 

Social  and  Economic  Fundamentals 

Cooperalioii  and  Liherly 

chapter  pace 

1.  The  Family       1 

2.  From  Family  to  Na tkjm ~ 

3.  Cooperation  in  NNOrk 1 1 

4.  Capital,  the  Partner  of  l.\n(»n 23 

5.  Getting  Capital:   Thrift 33 

6.  The  Function  of  Money 42 

7.  Demand,  Supply,  and  Competition     . 51 

PART  TWO 
The  Fundamentals  of  Citizenship 

Liberty  and  Democracy 

8.  The  Privileges  of  Citizenship 63 

I^C'The  Duties  of  Citizenship 70 

10.  Elections      "6 

11.  Political  Parties 83 

12.  Nominations 90 

13.  Estimating  Candidates 95 

14.  The  Citizen  as  Lawmaker 101 

PART  THREE 
The  Citizen  and  the  Local  Community 

Cooperation  and  Self-Govcrnnicnt 

15.  The  Local  Community 109 

16.  City  Government 118 

17.  ToAVN  AND  Township  Government 125 

18.  County  Government 129 

19.  Local  Management  of  Schools      135 

20.  Police  and  Fire  Protection 139 

21.  Preservation  of  Health      1*8 

vii 


viii  Contents 

chapter  page 

22.  Community  Planning 160 

23.  Public  Utilities 172 

24.  Charity 181 

25.  Training  Citizens 186 

PART  FOUR 

The  Citizen  in  State  and  Nation 

Liberty  and  Law 

26.  Constitutional  System 195 

27.  Making  Law 203 

28.  Carrying  Out  the  Law 214 

29.  Interpreting  and  Applying  the  Law 221 

30.  Territories  and  Dependencies — ^The  District  of  Co- 

lumbia      232 

PART  FIVE 
Some  Problems  of  Larger  Citizenship 

Cooperation  for  the  Common  Good 

31.  Problems  of  Labor 241 

32.  The  Care  of  Delinquents  and  Defectives    .....  250 

33.  Conservation  of  Natural  Resources      255 

34.  Development  of  Communications 264 

35.  Footing  the  Bills 275 

36.  Our  Place  in  the  World 284 

Appendixes 

1.  Reference  Lists 297 

2.  Constitution  of  the  United  States 299 

Index 321 


PART  ONE 
SOCIAL  AND  ECONOMIC  FUNDAMENTALS 

Cooperation  and  Liberty 


The  essential  element  in  patriotism,  in 
the  higher  patriotism,  is  unity  of  spirit — 
the  abihty  and  the  disposition  to  work  to- 
gether for  a  common  good ;  and  this  unity 
is  promoted  by  getting  a  large  and 
worthy  idea  of  what  the  common  good  is. 

Washington  Gladden 


Ijlirary  of  (Diiyrins 

Fig.  2.    "The  Family,"  a  painting  by  Chark-s  Sprague  Pearce. 


CHAPTER  ONE 
The  Family 

The  family  as  protector  and  provider.  Tii  tlio 
lives  of  most  young  people,  by  far  llie  most  important 
fact  is  family.  The  family  provides  not  only  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter,  but  also  the  affectionate  care 
and  protection  which  children  must  have  for  many 
years  before  they  can  make  their  own  way  in  lifi>. 
The  family  was  one  of  the  Jirst  associations  that  existed 
among  human  beings,  and  it  remains  the  most  important 
one  into  ivhich  they  enter  (Fig.  2). 

Dependence  upon  the  family  lasts  nuich  longer 
among  human  beings  than  it  does  among  the  lower 
animals,  whose  young  soon  become  self-supporting. 
Until  a  girl  is  eighteen  and  a  boy  twenty-one.  they 
are  regarded  by  the  law  as  "minors"  and  nnist  obey 
the  commands  of  their  parents;  and  some  young 
people  are  supported  and  cared  for  by  their  families 
until  after  they  are  grown  men  and  women,  gradu- 
ates, often,  of  universities  or  prolessional  sciiools. 

1 


2  Loyal  Citizenship 

Cooperation.  The  purpose  of  the  family  is  to 
increase  the  welfare  of  its  members.  It  accomplishes 
this  through  cooperation.  The  father  earns  the  living 
in  shop  or  office  or  on  the  farm.  The  mother  manages 
the  house,  cooks  or  sees  to  the  cooking,  and  cares  for 
the  young  children.  The  children  help  here  and  there 
with  errands,  chores,  or  small  earnings.  In  the  well- 
conducted  family,  all  work  together  for  the  common 
(jood. 

Authority.  If  every  member  of  a  family  always 
acted  as  he  pleased  without  regard  to  the  rest,  the 
usefulness  of  that  family  would  be  lost.  In  most 
cases  natural  affection  and  a  common  purpose  bring 
about  agreement,  especially  among  the  grown  mem- 
bers of  a  family.  Children,  however,  are  not  always 
wise  enough  to  appreciate  the  wisdom  of  their  par- 
ents. For  them  there  must  be,  to  keep  the  family 
acting  in  harmony,  the  authority  of  parents. 

When  hungry  wolves  were  poking  their  noses  into 
the  chinks  of  the  family  hut,  there  was  no  chance  for 
debate  as  to  what  each  member  should  do.  In  primi- 
tive times,  therefore,  prompt  family  cooperation  was 
obtained  through  the  unlimited  authority  of  the  father. 
This  was  the  situation  with  the  early  Romans,  among 
whom  the  father  had  even  the  power  of  life  and 
death  over  his  children.  There  is  no  longer  need  for 
such  extreme  power  in  the  hands  of  one  parent: 
milder  authority  over  the  children  is  now  sufficient, 
and  it  belongs  to  both  parents  jointly. 

Family  as  a  type  of  government.  When  a  boy's 
mother  tells  him  to  wear  his  rubbers  on  a  rainy  day, 


The  Family  3 

he  is  subject  [o  governmcnl.  His  parents' coriiiiuitKls 
are  law  to  him;  when  he  was  younger,  they  NNcrc  his 
only  law.  Tlie  necessity  for  such  law  and  sncli 
authority  arises  from  the  fact  thai  all  llic  nicnihers  of 
a  family  arc  nol  ('<jii(il  in  kiiowlcd^M'.  wisdom.  ;uid 
goodness. 

Force.  T  nfortunately.  nol  all  persons  who  onglit 
to  obey  do  so  willingly,  and  children  sometimes 
require /orcc  or  tiie  f(>ar  of  it  to  make  Ihem  obedient 
to  even  the  best  rules.  There  are  parents  wiio  say 
that  they  never  "force"  or  "punish"  I  heir  children, 
meaning  that  they  never  whij)  them.  All  parents, 
however,  make  use  either  of  superior  })hysiial  or 
mental  force  to  secure  obedience.  Witliin  (he  family 
we  find  proof  of  the  fact  that  force  is  necessary  (o 
make  govern nienl  and  law  ejfeclive. 

Liberty  and  restraint.  Above  all  other  things, 
people  appreciate  liberty — the  freedom  to  go  and  to 
do  as  they  please.  Liberty  is  one  of  the  ])rincipal 
elements  in  any  one's  happiness,  and  those  who  are 
deprived  of  it  sufTer  severely,  regardless  of  their 
material  comfort. 

Unrestrained  liberty,  however,  would  be  impossi- 
ble even  among  savages.  It  would  at  once  destroy 
the  usefulness  of  the  family,  which  is  the  first  social 
unit  (Fig.  3).  If,  for  example,  when  the  family  sat 
down  to  dinner,  the  father  as  the  strongest  helped 
himself  to  all  that  was  best  on  the  (able,  and  if  each 
other  member  grabbed  and  kept  wlial  he  could,  the 
weakest  would  get  very  little,  and  there  would  be  an 
end  of  the  family   as  a  provider  of  ft)od.      There 


4  Loyal  Cilizenship 

should  Ije  ill  the  family  and  in  society  generally  as 
much  liberty  for  even  the  least  member  as  will  not 


Fig.  3.   The  family  is  the  social  unit  about  which 
all  government  centers. 


interfere  with  successful  cooperation.  Liberty  must 
be  restrained  in  order  to  secure  orderly  and  safe  living 
conditions;  all  the  more  so,  because  wilhout  restraint 
liberty  would  come  to  he  anarchy  and  true  liberty  would 
be  lost  to  all. 

QUESTIONS 

What  are  two  of  the  chief  purposes  of  the  family?  In  the  state 
where  you  live,  how  long  must  children  go  to  school?  At  what  age 
do  boys  and  girls  of  your  acquaintance  begin  to  earn  a  living?    In 


77/p  iamdy  5 

what  respects  is  family  life  j)referal)le  to  lif<'  in  an  in>tilutiunal 
home?  What  is  cooperation?  Give  examples  of  it  inside  the  home; 
outside  the  home.  What  reason  exists  f«)r  parental  authority? 
What  light  does  this  throw  on  government  and  law?  NMiy  nmst 
there  he  force  behind  authority?  What  is  liberty?  Can  any  one 
have  all  the  liberty  he  wants?  \\hy?  \\  hat  are  the  limits  of  liberty 
in  the  home? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Look  up  "government,"  "liberty,"  and  "law"  in  any  gr>od 
encyclopedia  or  in  any  of  the  standard  texts  such  as  (iAiiiNKM.  J.  \\  ., 
Inlroducliun  to  Political  Science;  Gkttell,  R.  G.,  Inlroduction  to 
Political  Science;   Leacock,  S.,  Elements  of  Political  Science. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Let  each  of  the  pupils  resolve  to  do  at  home  s(jme  lirlpfid  thing 
that  he  has  not  been  told  to  do  by  his  parents. 

Suggested  activities  for  boys: 

1.  Install  an  electric  bell  and  care  for  it. 

2.  Clean  the  windows  of  your  house  or  apartment. 

3.  Make  a  useful  device  for  the  home. 

4.  Bait  the  h(jok,  and  catch,  clean,  and  cook  a  fish. 

5.  Make  a  set  of  practical  playthings  for  a  child  three  years  old. 

6.  Weed  the  garden  or  clean  up  the  back  yard. 

7.  Cut  and  rake  the  grass. 

8.  Clean  up  the  barn  or  other  outbuildings. 

9.  Chop  a  quantity  of  kindling  wood  and  i)ile  it   neatly  in  its 
proper  place. 

10.    Inspect  your  home  and  see  whether  there  is  any  carpentering 
that  needs  to  be  done  that  a  lH)y  can  do;    if  there  is,  do  it. 

Suggested  activities  for  girls  (adapted  from  Home  Craft  Honors 
for  the  Camp  Fire  Girls) : 

1.  Gather  two  quarts  of  wild  berries  or  fruits  and  make  them  into 
a  des.sert. 

2.  Wash  and  iron  a  dress. 

3.  Clean  the  ice  chest  thoroughly  twice  a  \Ncik  fur  two  weeks. 

4.  Put  away  clothing,  rugs,  furs,  or  blankets  for  a  season. 

5.  Cook  the  dimier  for  the  family  so  as  to  give  your  mother  u  rest. 


Loyal  Citizenship 


6.  Take  care  of  the  baby  or  amuse  the  younger  children  on  rainy 
days. 

7.  Tell  a  bedtime  story  to  your  younger  brother  or  sister. 

8.  Gather  a  group  of  four  or  five  little  children  together  and 
teach  them  Safety  First. 

9.  Do  the  dusting  without  being  asked  to  do  so  by  your  mother. 


Cy  CD  c:>TD 

'cy  TIZ  H  hsl  S  V\V? 


LEADEI^SHIP 


SER.VIC,E 


\ 


COOPERATION 


/ 


\ 


OBEDIENCE 


Fig.  4.   Steps  to  good  citizenship.   Each  of  these  must  be 
climbed.  There  is  no  short  cut  to  good  citizenship. 


CHAPTER  TWO 
From  Family  to  Nation 

Family  and  clan.  Tf  huiiiari  rooporalion  had 
stopped  ^vith  the  family,  we  sliould  still  he  poor 
savages,  often  suffering  from  eold  and  hunger.  l>ut 
ages  hefore  the  beginning  of  history,  larger  groups  of 
kinsfolk  came  to  he  formed.  These  groups,  known 
as  clans,  afforded  belter  protection  than  the  family  could 
give  against  wild  animals  and  savage  men.  The 
conduct  of  clan  members  toward  one  another  was 
governed  by  rules  or  laws  that,  for  the  most  part, 
grew  naturally  out  of  the  experiences  of  elan  life. 
These  laws  might  be  preserved  in  the  memories  of 
the  elders  or  priests  and  applied  by  an  assembly  of 
the  people  or  of  the  w  arriors.  Those  w  ho  broke  them 
were  in  many  cases  put  to  death  or  thrust  out  of  the 
clan  to  perish  in  the  wilderness.  Old  laws  were  harsh. 
Keeping  alive  was  a  difficult  matter  for  primitive 
men,  and  no  one  could  be  allowed  to  endanger  the 
clan's  chance  to  survive. 

The  nation.  As  time  went  on,  clan  groups  be- 
came tribes  and  tribes  merged  into  nations.  As  the 
areas  ivithin  which  law  ruled  became  wider,  the  security 
of  individuals  became  greater,  and  they  could  belter 
practice  the  arts  of  peace  and  civilizalit)ii.  After 
centuries  of  struggle,  only  a  conij)arativ('ly  small 
number  of  nations  have  survived,  and  not  more  than 
six  of  these  are  of  the  first  importance. 

Within  a  nation  men  cooperate  to  secure  peace. 
Thus,  as  Americans,  we  regulate  our  dealings  with 
one  another  by  laws,  and  join  witli  all  our  country- 

7 


8  Loyal  (Aiizenship 

men  to  repel  attack  from  the  outside.  That  our 
laws  may  be  fair,  well  understood,  and  obeyed,  we 
have  legislatures  to  make  them,  courts  to  interpret 
them,  and  executive  officers  to  enforce  them.  Our 
government  has  been  a  wonderful  success.  It  is  over  a 
century  since  the  last  armed  soldier  of  a  hostile  for- 
eign power  departed  from  our  country.  We  are  safe 
in  our  homes,  on  the  streets,  and  in  the  schools. 
There  are,  of  course,  persons  of  crimingd  tendencies 
who  seek  to  injure  others,  but  they  are  few  and  are 
able  to  do  comparatively  httle  harm. 

In  the  earliest  times  the  enemy  lurked  just  outside 
the  circle  of  the  family  camp  fire.  In  clan  days  he 
was  kept  back  only  by  the  village  stockade.  With 
the  growth  of  nations,  visible  danger  has  been  thrust 
back  farther  and  farther,  until  today  it  is  a  long  way 
from  most  of  us.  This  does  not  mean  that  life  is  now 
altogether  easy  and  safe;  but  the  citizen  can  at  least 
lie  down  at  night  reasonably  confident  that  he  will 
awaken  to  find  his  possessions  safe  and  those  he  cares 
for  unharmed.  Cooperation  for  peace  and  safety  within 
a  nation  is  the  greatest  political  achievement  of  man. 
Further  progress  will  lie  in  the  direction  of  more 
perfect  cooperation  among  nations. 

Authority  and  the  growth  of  individual  rights. 
Cooperation  among  many  people  distributed  over  a 
large  area  cannot  be  secured  without  the  exercise 
of  a  good  deal  of  authority.  In  fact,  in  the  develop- 
ment  of  nations  there  were  long  periods  when  abso- 
lute or  nearly  absolute  power  was  wielded  by  one 
man,  the  king.    There  were  then  few,  if  any,  rights  of 


From  Foniilv  to  \a(ion 


(  )|]l  !  "        111-    ninpil'-  -     ti,!  Im.mI  \ 
be  questioned  here. 


<M    nol 


the  individual  lliat  (lie  kiiif;  was  bound  (o  rospect. 
Just  as  the  absolute  authority  of  the  father  over  liis 
children  gave  place  to  a  milder  rule,  so  absolute  mon- 
archy gradually  disappeared. 

In  all  of  Europe  and  America  great  struggles  for 
freedom  have  taken  place,  and  the  liberty  of  the 
individual  has  been  widely  safeguarded.  In  llit^  his- 
tory of  the  Knglisli-sp(>aking  peoj)les,  the  riijlils  of  the 
individual  against  authority  were  lirst  stated  in 
Magna  Charta  (1215),  reaffirmed  in  the  Bill  of  Rights 
(1689),  newly  stated  in  America  in  the  Declaration  of 
Independence  (1776),  and  made  the  highest  law  of  tiie 
United  States  in  our  Constitution,  particularly  in  the 
first  ten  amendments. 


10  Loyal  Citizenship 

Liberty  and  authority  in  government.  Definite 
limits  for  liberty  and  for  authority  are  not  easy  to 
indicate.  Other  things  being  equal,  the  larger  the 
group  brought  together  for  any  purpose,  the  more 
authority  there  must  be  if  the  members  of  the  group 
are  to  work  together  in  an  orderly  manner.  A  com- 
mittee of  three,  for  example,  can  discuss  a  question 
without  a  presiding  officer  or  any  rules  for  debate.  If 
all  do  talk  at  once,  httle  harm  is  done.  But  in  a 
meeting  of  over  a  thousand,  like  a  national  party 
convention,  there  will  be  required  a  whole  book  of 
rules,  a  strong  chairman  armed  with  a  gavel  to  inter- 
pret and  declare  them,  and  a  sergeant-at-arms  with 
deputies  to  enforce  authority.  The  105,000,000  peo- 
ple of  the  United  States  today  need  more  laws  than 
did  the  3,000,000  of  1787.  In  considering  how  far  it 
is  right  to  restrict  liberty,  these  points  should  be 
remembered : 

For  Liberty  For  Authorily 

1.  Liberty  is  an  important  ele-  1.  Absence  of  restraint  alone 
nient  in  every  person's  happi-  does  not  give  real  liberty.  We 
ness.  cannot   be    wholly    free   except 

2.  Liberty  is  necessary  to  pro-  under  circumstances  that  make 
gress.    A  slave  has  no  incentive  life  unattractive. 

to  improve  anything.  A  people  2.  Liberty  must  stop  short  of 
kept  in  bondage  can  have  no  the  point  where  it  imperils  soci- 
free  interchange  of  ideas,  with-  ety,  for  society  makes  the  enjoy- 
out  which  there  can  be  little  ment  of  liberty  possible.  The 
progress.  happiness   of  the   people   as   a 

3.  It  is  through  liberty  alone  whole  is  infinitely  more  impor- 
that  people  can  prepare  for  tant  that  the  happiness  of  any 
liberty.    No  man  can  learn  self-  individual. 

control,    except   by    controlling  3.  The  hberty  of  one  person 

himself.     No   people  can   learn  must     not     conflict     with     the 

self-government  except  by  gov-  liberty  of  another, 
erning  itself. 


From  Family  to  Nation 


11 


Liberty  and  self-government.  We  have  earned 
the  ricfhl  (o  be  called  a  free  people,  no!  so  niucti  by 
lessening  the  aulhorily  that  may  he  exercised  over  us 
as  by  self-government.  Even  severe  rules  do  not  seem 
oppressive  when  we  make  them  for  ourselves.  Stu- 
dent self-government,  some  form  of  whieh  now  exists 
in  most  colleges  and  in  many  other  schools,  is  suc- 
cessful hecause  students  so  willingly  suhmil  to  disci- 
pline of  their  own  making.  The  Americans  of  the 
Revolutionary  period  refused  to  pay  a  trifling  tax  on 
tea  because  it  was  laid  by  a  Parliament  in  whieh 
they  were  not  represented;    but  they  were  ready  to 


Fig.  6.  TJiore  ran  1m*  no  rij^ht  without  ii  correspoiidiii^  duty.  l'iil»'s.s 
all  have  duties  none  have  rifjhts.  The  e\en  halance  between  rights 
and  duties  gives  true  liberty. 


12  Loyal  Citizenship 

submit  to  heavy  taxation  when  it  was  imposed  by 
their  own  representatives. 

It  frequently  happens  that  we  are  called  on  to 
obey  laws  that  we  did  not  wish  to  have  passed,  and 
we  obey  them.  Since  there  are  bound  to  be  dif- 
ferences of  opinion,  it  is  only  fair  that  final  authority 
should  rest  with  the  majority.  On  no  other  basis 
could  our  liberties  be  maintained.  It  is  only  through 
doing  our  duty  as  citizens — obeying  lawful  authority 
—that  we  can  cooperate  to  maintain  the  privileges 
of  citizenship. 

QUESTIONS 

What  advantages  did  clan  life  give?  How  were  clans  governed? 
What  relation  does  the  size  of  the  areas  in  which  men  cooperate  for 
peace  bear  to  civilization?  How  does  tlie  dictionary  define  "govern- 
ment"? Wherein,  in  your  opinion,  has  the  United  States  government 
been  especially  successful?  What  has  become  of  the  enemies  that 
used  to  threaten  every  family?  What  did  kings  have  to  do  with  the 
growth  of  nations?  W  hat  are  the  principal  landmarks  in  the  history 
of  liberty  in  English-speaking  countries?  Why  are  more  rules 
necessary  for  the  guidance  of  a  large  body  of  people  than  a  small 
one?  What  arguments  can  you  give  for  hberty?  for  authority? 
How  would  you  apply  these  principles  to  an  actual  case?  How  does 
self-government  reconcile  us  to  authority? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  government  and  way  of  life  of  the  Angles,  Jutes,  and  Saxons 
before  they  invaded  England,  and  the  development  of  the  English 
nation  out  of  these  invading  tribes,  will  make  interesting  subjects 
for  reports.  These  reports  will  illustrate  concretely  the  change 
from  clan  to  nation  which  the  text  describes  in  general  terms. 
Material  may  be  found  in  Green's  Short  History  of  the  English  People 
or  in  any  other  standard  English  history. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 
A  liberty  hour.    The  program  should  include  the  recitation  of 
extracts  from  Magna  Charta,  the  English  Bill  of  Rights,  the  Declara- 


From  Family  to  Nalion 


13 


tion  of  Indcpendonce,  lht>  Hill  of  i?i^,'lits,  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  (first  ten  amendments),  and  the  similar  j)rovisions  of 
the  state  constitution.  Such  numl)ers  may  he  inlersjKTsed  with 
patriotic  songs  and  sele<tions  in  verse  or  prose.  The  American 
Spirit:  A  Basis  fur  World  Democracy,  l)y  Monroe-Miller,  contains 
excellent  material. 

Orfianize  the  class  for  purposes  of  self-government.  Kulure  recita- 
tions may  he  conducted  through  this  class  organization.  The  adofi- 
tion  of  a  constitution,  the  election  of  oflicers,  and  the  study  of  rules 
of  order  will  give  practical  training  of  immense  value  and  will,  at 
the  same  time,  greatly  stimulate  student  interest.  The  first  step 
may  well  be  the  resolution  of  the  class  to  organize.  Then  will 
follow  in  order:  (1)  The  election  of  temporary  oflicers,  (2)  appoint- 
ment of  a  committee  to  submit  a  draft  of  a  constitution,  C.3)  report 
of  this  conmiittee,  (1)  action  on  the  report,  (."S)  election  of  permanent 
officers  (their  term  should  be  short  enough  to  allow  offices  to  be 
passed  around  generally).  These  steps  in  class  organization  will 
occupy  all  the  time  that  can  be  spared  from  a  numl)er  of  recitations 
based  on  matter  in  succeeding  chapters.  S(>e  the  first  paragraph 
under  "Civic  Activities"  at  the  end  of  Chapter  10. 


Fig.  7.  The  great  seal  of  the  Cnited 
States.  Besides  its  flag,  each  of  the 
nations  has  a  device  that  stands  for  it:* 
so\ereigiit  y.  Similarly,  in  primitive 
times  each  clan  had  its  totem. 


CHAPTER  THREE 
Cooperation  in  Work 

Work.  No  good  thing  can  be  had  without  work, 
except  the  free  gifts  of  nature,  such' as  hght  and  air. 
Behind  the  food  we  eat,  the  clothing  we  wear,  and 
every  comfort  we  enjoy,  is  ivork.  You  could  not 
stretch  yourself  in  an  easy-chair,  except  for  the  fact 
that  some  one  had  labored  to  build  it.  Most  men  and 
women  work  hard,  and  it  is  necessary  that  they 
should,  for  there  is  scarcely  enough  food  in  the  world 
to  go  round. 

Fortunately,  work  is  not  in  itself  an  evil,  although 
too  much  of  it  may  be.  Many  people  rather  shrink 
from  work;  but  in  reasonable  quantities  it  makes 
people  stronger,  better,  and  happier  than  they  would 
be  without  it.  Every  one  should  uiork  at  least  enough 
to  pay  his  own  way.  The  tramp,  the  criminal,  and 
the  loafer — whether  rich  or  poor — are  all  dead 
weights  to  be  carried  by  the  rest  of  us;  they  do  not 
cooperate. 

Division  of  occupation.  There  was  a  time  when 
each  family  was  self-supporting.  The  game  and  fish 
it  ate,  the  skins  it  wore,  the  wood  it  burned,  the  rude 
hut  that  sheltered  it,  were  all  produced  by  the  family 
itself.  If  cooperation  had  never  gone  any  farther 
than  the  family,  we  should  have  scanty  food, 
clothing,  and  shelter,  and  few  other  material  advan- 
tages. With  the  spread  of  cooperation  to  a  larger 
unit,  the  clan,  came  the  opportunity  for  division  of 
occupation.  If  one  man  proved  to  be  an  exceptionally 
good  maker  of  arrows,  he  could  make  more  than  he 

14 


Cooperation  in  Work 


l.'j 


r.  .s.  /;.  .1. 

Fk;.  }).  C.ounlinp  slii'rp  on  a  W  tslcrii  ranch.  The  (.oiiperation  of  inori 
everywhere — of  workers  with  hand  and  brain — is  necessary  to  pro- 
duce the  food  we  eat  and  the  clothing  we  wear. 

needed  for  himself  and  exchange  the  extra  ones  for 
game,  fish,  skins,  or  whatever  else  he  could  get. 
Another  clansman  might  devote  himself  to  making 
hammers,  and  hecause  of  his  skillful  l;il)or  the  com- 
munity would  have  a  better  sujjply  of  liamniers  llian 
it  had  before.  Thus,  division  of  occu})ation  increased 
until  the  common  trades  we  know  today  came  intc 
being,  as  carjxMitering,  blacksniithiug.  and  masonry. 
Society  was  better  off  because  a  given  number  of 
persons,  each  skilled  in  a  particular  task,  could 
accomplish  more  than  an  equal  number  of  Jacks-of- 
all-trades.  As  the  areas  of  peace  and  order  grew,  there 
was  still  further  division  of  occupation.  One  village 
had  clay  for  bricks  and  exchanged  its  bricks  for  an- 


16 


Loyal  Citizenship 


American  M'ouhii  Coinpan>/ 

Fig.  9.  Sorting  and  grading  wool  at  a  mill  in  Massachusetts.  The 
occupation  of  these  expert  judges  of  wool  is  very  different  from  that 
of  the  ranchers,  yet  it  contributes  to  the  same  end. 

other  village's  salt  fish  or  yet  another's  tanned  hides; 
and  so  cooperation  among  men  has  extended  until 
today  the  very  clothes  we  wear  are  the  product  of 
every  clime  and  represent  the  labor  of  ten  thousand 
hands. 

The  story  of  a  woolen  suit.  Up  on  the  highlands 
of  southern  Wyoming  are  a  lonely  sheep  herder  and 
his  flock.  We  shall  not  try  to  trace  the  career  of  the 
sheep  herder,  although  it  took  the  cooperation  of 
many  people  to  get  him  and  his  outfit  on  the  range. 
At  dipping  time  he  drives  the  sheep  to  the  dipping 
vats;  at  shearing  time  to  the  shearing  pens.  Here 
the  brawny  hands  of  others  are  brought  into  action. 


Cooperalion  in  Uor/c 


I,  II   I  omjn 


Fir,.  10.  Sj)inninp;  woolen  yarn.  Those  inlricatP  and  costly  spinning 
frames  eU'ect  an  enormous  economy  of  lahor.  Tlieir  product  enters 
into  the  clothinj;  of  millions  of  people.  We  could  not  have  such 
machines  if  it  were  not  for  capital. 


The  sheared  wool,  in  bags,  is  carried  perhaps  fifty 
miles  by  motor  truck  to  a  railway  station.  There 
the  bags  are  loaded  on  a  car,  which  in  turn  becomes 
part  of  a  train,  and  the  sliipinenl  starts  for  Ciiicago 
or  Boston.  A  multitude  of  brains  and  hands  help  to 
run  the  series  of  railroads  over  which  the  wool 
journeys.  Once  arrived  at  the  railroad  terminal,  the 
bags  of  wool  are  bumped  over  the  pavements,  again 
by  truck,  to  a  great  wool  warehouse.  Thence  the 
bags  go  to  a  woolen  mill,  perhaps  in  Massachusetts, 
where  the  wool  is  ptit  lliroiigli  processes  wliicli  make 
it  first  into  varn   and    tlien   into  cloth.     There  are 


18 


Loyal  Citizenship 


American  Woolen  Company 

Fig.  11.  Weaving  the  woolen  yarn  into  cloth.  The  modern  world 
could  scarcely  be  clothed  if  we  depended  on  the  old-time  weaver  at 
his  hand  loom. 

dippings,  dyeings,  spinnings,  weavings,  the  work  of 
delicate  machines  directed  by  skilled  hands.  Away 
goes  the  finished  cloth  to  a  New  York  clothing  manu- 


Cooperation  in  llo/Zc  19 

facturer,  and  once  more  many  flying'  fiiifjcrs  are  set 
to  work.  Designers,  cutters,  slilehers,  and  finishers 
bend  over  it  until  the  suit  is  produced  and  starts  on 
its  journey  to  the  retail  store.  There  a  clerk  sells  it, 
a  cashier  takes  the  money  and  records  the  trans- 
action, and  finally  a  man  delivers  it  at  the  purchaser's 
door. 

Kinds  of  work.  The  many  kinds  of  work  thai 
are  required  to  supply  a  suit  of  clothes,  to  furnish  a 
meal,  or  to  build  a  house  are  all  honorable  because 
they  contril)ute  to  the  welfare  of  humanity.  Some 
labor  is  done  chiefly  wUh  the  hands,  some  chiefly  irifli 
the  head.      It  is  ])erha])s  difTicult  to  realize  that  the 


Fio.  12.  Tlie  nianufiicturo  of  cloth  Into  clolhini;.  Soiik^  of 
those  men  <lo  nothing;  hut  stitch  Itultoiiliolcs  mikI  others 
sew  only  hems  or  se;ims.  l-'rotii  r;iii<h  to  clolhiiii:  factory, 
niiiny  kiiuls  of  work  are  performed  by  many  tlillereiit  jm-o- 
ple,  iwul  tlie  result  of  their  combined  cH'orts  is  the  woolen 
suit  that  you  n)ay  wear. 


20  Loyal  Citizenship 

chief  of  a  great  corporation  is  working,  as  he  sits 
behind  a  big,  clean  desk  for  a  few  hours  a  day  dictat- 
ing letters  and  receiving  callers.  He  may,  however, 
be  working  hard  and  effectively  indeed.  Compara- 
tively few  men  can  think  clearly  and  continuously 
enough  to  fill  positions  like  his.  Such  a  man's  work 
is  of  a  kind  that  not  many  are  qualified  to  undertake. 
He  carries  the  burden  of  responsibility.  It  is  often 
more  ti-ying  to  say  "yes"  or  "no" — to  make  a  de- 
cision on  an  important  question — than  to  saw  a 
cord  of  wood. 

Competition.  Half  a  dozen  boys  are  lined  up  at 
the  mark  for  a  quarter-mile  race.  Revolver  in  hand, 
the  starter  stands  just  behind  them.  Every  muscle 
is  taut,  every  face  strained  with  excitement.  Each  of 
the  boys  is  eager  to  compete — to  run  until  his  legs 
ache  and  his  feet  grow  heavy,  and  until  his  breath 
comes  in  painful  gasps.  Why?  Because  there  is  a 
cup  for  the  winner.^  That  has  something  to  do  with 
it,  especially  in  getting  up  the  race;  but  once  in  the 
race,  the  boys  will  run  their  best,  cup  or  no  cup. 
The  real  reason  for  their  effort  will  be  the  desire  to 
excel,  the  determination  to  win.  The  competitive 
spirit,  which  prompts  each  boy  to  do  his  best,  is  a 
common  human  quality. 

The  gun  cracks  and  the  quarter-milers  are  off  at  a 
terrific  pace.  Who  will  win.'>  Barring  accident,  the 
best  runner — the  one  with  a  combination  of  natural 
running  ability,  good  training,  strength  of  will, 
quickness  of  wit.  Why  all  this  effort  to  find  out  who 
is  fastest  at  440  yards.^   Why  not  have  a  debate  on 


('.oopcndion  in  Work 


21 


Fig.  13.    Tlie  liiiish  ul"  a  hind  raco.    Tlu'  spirit   of  KHiiiHlilion  lias 
caused  each  runner  to  do  his  best. 

the  subject  followed  by  vote  among  the  peoj)U'  in  I  lie 
stands.^  l^aeing  is  hard  and  painful  for  the  racers, 
but  it  is  the  only  way  to  delerniine  the  best  runner. 
Compeliiion  is  necessary  to  bring  out  the  })esl  efforts  of 
all  of  us.  Il  is  through  competition  thai  the  leaders 
in  business  and  industry'  are  selected.  In  no  other 
way  can  their  abilities  be  proved.  Rut  competition, 
however  vigorous,  ought  to  be  fair  and  even  generous. 
Roosevelt  said,  "Don't  flinch,  don't  foid,  and  hit 
the  line  hard!"  Success  cannot  be  won  by  indiil'er- 
ence,  lazniess,  and  cowardice,  but  only  by  putting 
forth  our  best  effort — by  steady  and  honest  work. 

Work,  capital.  Theprinci])les  of  co()perMlion  and 
competition,  o})posed  as  they  may  ap})ear  to  be,  are 
essential  to  successful  work.  To  make  both  of  these 
principles  most  highly  effective  we  need  another 
economic  force — capital. 


22  Loyal  Citizenship 

QUESTIONS 

What  things  are  to  be  had  without  work?  Is  work  good  or  bad 
for  us?  Is  there  any  reason  why  each  person  who  is  able  to  do  so 
should  not  pay  his  own  way?  What  is  meant  by  division  of  occupa- 
tion? Give  examples.  IIow  has  division  of  occupation  progressed? 
Why  is  most  work  honorable?  Does  the  brain  worker  really  work? 
In  what  sense  is  the  carrying  of  responsibility  work?  What  is  meant 
by  competition?  What  effect  does  it  have  in  developing  energy? 
Why  is  not  the  process  of  election  always  as  good  a  means  of  picking 
men  as  competition?  What  danger  is  there  in  competition?  How 
can  it  be  avoided? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  history  of  other  familiar  articles,  as  hats  and  shoes,  may  be 
traced  as  we  have  traced  the  history  of  a  woolen  suit.  The  trades  in 
your  community  may  be  made  the  subject  of  reports.  Information 
concerning  these  can  be  obtained  through  business  men  and  labor 
officials. 

There  are  no  books  dealing  with  the  fundamentals  of  economics 
in  which  the  facts  are  simply  enough  stated  for  ordinary  presenta- 
tion in  the  eighth  or  ninth  grade.  The  nearest  approach  is  probably 
Ely  and  Wicker,  Elementary  Principles  of  Economics.  The  teacher 
will  find  valuable  for  personal  use  the  standard  works  on  Economics, 
such  as  those  of  Taussig,  Seager,  Mill,  Walker,  Hobson,  and  Mar- 
shall. Approach  to  economic  fundamentals  may  frequently  be  best 
achieved  by  way  of  economic  history.  See  Bogart,  E.  L.,  Economic 
History  of  the  United  States;  Cheyney,  E.  P.,  Industrial  and  Social 
History  of  England;  Coman,  K.,  The  Industrial  History  of  the  United 
States. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

A  visit  to  a  local  factory  in  which  division  of  labor  is  easily  observa- 
ble will  help  to  make  clear  this  and  succeeding  chapters. 

There  is  frequently  some  much-needed  piece  of  work  about  the 
school  or  community  that  a  vigorous  group  of  young  people  can  very 
quickly  perform.  If  possible,  arrange  to  have  the  class  do  it  in  such 
a  way  as  to  illustrate  the  worth  of  cooperation  and  division  of 
occupation. 

A  work  report  (anonymous)  might  be  handed  in  by  each  pupil. 
It  should  state  what  work  the  pupil  has  done  during  the  preceding 
week,  the  hours,  and  the  compensation,  if  any,  received.  The  teacher 
should  combine  the  reports  into  one,  with  suitable  comments. 


CllAPTi:i{  FOUR 

Capital,  thi;  Pahtmih  of  La  boh 

The  beginnings  of  capital.  There  was  a  time 
when  men  })ursued  their  ^'ame  Ijarehaiuled  or  >villi 
sticks  or  rocks  that  tliey  clianced  to  fiiul.  In  time, 
liovvever,  some  savage  made  a  stone  hammer,  and 
later,  perhaps,  another  made  a  spear.  To  make 
these  weapons  took  a  great  deal  of  labor,  both  of 
mind  and  body,  but  once  they  were  made,  game  was 
more  easily  taken  (Fig.  It).  These  primitive  weap- 
ons were  capital.  Attracted  by  the  flavor  of  a  wild 
plant,  some  barbarian  collected  its  seeds  and  saved 
them  for  planting  in  the  spring.  These  seeds  were 
capital,  like  the  hammer  and  spear.  Where  any- 
thing is  created  or  saved  for  the  purpose  of  using  it  as 
an  aid  to  further  production,  that  tiling  is  capital. 

Capital  and  wealth.  At  the  time  when  the  sim- 
plest forms  of  capital  were  created  other  articles 
were  being  accumulated:  some  for  utility,  like 
earthen  jars;  others  for  luxury,  like  beads  and  rings. 
These  contributed  directly  to  the  satisfaction  of 
their  owners,  as  capital  contributed  indirectly.  To- 
gether with  capital  they  made  up  the  wealth  of  early 
men.  Every  useful  tiling,  except  sucJi  things  as  light 
and  air  which  belong  freely  to  all,  is  wealth.  Capital 
is  wealth,  though  many  articles  of  wealth  are  not 
capital  (Figs.  15  and  16). 

Property.  Anything  that  is  owned  is  property. 
Next  to  life  and  limb,  property  early  came  to  be  the 
thing  most  carefully  jirotected.  "Thou  shall  not 
steal"  was  one  of  the  first  laws,  and  as  the  areas  of 

23 


Loyal  Citizenship 


David  C.  Lithyow 

Fig.  14.   An  Iroquois  worker  in  stone.   The  weapons  that  he  made 
for  use  in  the  hunt  were  capital. 

cooperation  for  purposes  of  government  have  ex- 
tended, property  has  been  made  more  and  more 
safe.  It  sometimes  seems  that  property  is  not  dis- 
tributed among  men  very  fairly— it  is  certainly  not 


Capilal,  the  Parlnci\  of  Labor 


-:.) 


distributed  evenly;  and  lliere  are  persons  wlio  Ix'lieve 
that  there  should  be  no  sucfi  thing  as  individual 
property,  that  all  \Nealth  should  be  owned  by  the 
community,  share  and  share  alike.  The  most  impor- 
lanl  of  the  many  reasons  why  the  right  of  property 
should  l)e  respected  is  that  this  right  encourages  men  to 
create  more  useful  things  than  they  can  immediately  use. 
Thus  the  comnmnily's  stores  of  wealth  and  capital 
are  increased,  and  the  well-being  of  all  men  is 
promoted. 

The  reward  of  labor  and  saving.  It  takes  some- 
thing besides  labor  to  create  capilal.  In  ihe  lime  a 
savage  fisherman  spent  at  making  a  dug-out  canoe, 
he  could  have  caught  many  fish  from  the  bank.     In 


Fig.  15.  Articles  of  luxury, 
such  as  these,  iire  beautiful,  hut 
they  do  not  lieli)  in  the  produc- 
tion of  other  g(M)(ls.  They  are 
wealth,  but  not  capital. 


Fig.  16.  T(K)1s.  materials,  and 
iiiachines  that  are  used  in  pro- 
(hiclion  are  both  wealth  and 
capilal. 


26  Loyal  Citizenship 

order  to  make  the  canoe,  he  had  to  give  up  the  present 
enjoyment  of  his  leisure  or  of  the  fish  that  he  might 
have  taken.  This  was  abstinence  (which  amounts  to 
the  same  thing  as  saving).  The  inducement  he  had 
for  digging  out  the  canoe  and  abstaining  from  enjoy- 
ment was  the  prospect  of  a  better  supply  of  fish  after 
he  got  the  canoe  built.  The  fact  that  the  canoe  would 
be  his  property  and  that  he  would  get  the  benefit  of 
its  use  greatly  encouraged  the  fisherman  in  the  crea- 
tion of  this  piece  of  capital. 

It  is  still  with  a  view  to  encouraging  the  creation 
of  capital  that  inventions  are  allowed  to  be  patented. 
When  the  government  grants  a  patent,  the  inventor 
is  given  for  a  term  of  years  the  exclusive  property 
right  in  his  idea.  A  man  will  work  hard  to  make  a 
discovery  if  he  knows  that  he  will  be  allowed  a 
property  right  in  it  that  will  reward  him  for  his 
labor  and  thought.  The  rights  of  authors  and 
composers  in  their  works  are  protected  by  copyright, 
as  inventions  are  protected  by  patent,  and  for 
similar  reasons. 

Capital  and  division  of  labor.  Labor  and  capital 
are  really  partners  in  production,  one  being  as  necessary 
as  the  other.  Division  of  labor  and  the  use  of  capital 
have  grown  side  by  side.  No  man  alone  could  have 
invented  and  built  the  comphcated  and  expensive 
machinery  that  is  used  to  cut  the  wool  off  a  sheep's 
back  and  finally  turn  it  into  clothing.  When,  how- 
ever, division  of  labor  had  been  carried  to  the  point 
where  each  worker  did  some  simple  task,  it  was 
easier  to  invent  a  machine  to  do  that  task.     The  use 


Capital,  the  Partner  of  Laltor 


Fk;.  it.  An  okl-limc  (■()l)l)lor.  wln)  worked  with- 
out much  iissistiiiuc  from  iai)ital.  His  output  was 
small,  and  so  was  his  reward. 

of  capital  niado  ])ossil)le  the  incrcasod  (li\ision  of 
labor  and  the  building  of  the  niaehinery  al.-o.  To- 
day few  workers  ever  make  the  whole  of  anything. 
In  a  shoe  factory,  for  example,  one  man  does  notliing 
but  nail  on  heels,  day  in  and  day  out.  This  is  nmeh 
less  interesting  for  him  than  il  would  be  to  make 
whole  pairs  of  shoes.  lie  has  ceased  to  buy  leather, 
make  it  up  into  shoes  with  his  own  tools,  and  to  })ay 
himself  by  selling  the  ])roduct.  The  appliances  for 
shoemaking  are  now  costly  machines,  too  expensive  for 


28  Loyal  Citizenship 

the  individual  irorker  to  oum;  and  they  can  he  used 
economically  only  by  many  specialized  workers.  More 
shoes  are  made  in  a  factory  and  at  less  cost  than 
would  be  possible  by  hand  labor.  The  worker  in  the 
shoe  factory  gets  more  articles  in  return  for  his  labor 
than  did  the  old-time  shoemaker  (Fig.  17).  In  the  first 
instance,  however,  he  gets  his  pay  in  the  form  of 
wages. 

Paying  for  capital.  To  do  his  part  in  modern  in- 
dustry, the  capitalist  must  provide  the  raw  materials 
to  be  made  up;  the  supplies,  such  as  coal  and  oil, 
that  are  consumed  in  the  work;  the  tools  and  ma- 
chinery with  which  the  work  is  done;  and  the  wages 
of  labor  employed  upon  it.  It  is  clear  that  if  he  is  to 
continue  in  business  he  must  sell  the  product  for  enough 
to  pay  back  the  cost  of  the  materials  and  supplies  used 
and  the  wages  paid  to  get  the  work  done.  If  he 
only  got  that  much,  however,  it  would  not  be 
enough.  We  know  that  an  automobile  that  was 
bought  a  year  ago  for  $1,500  will  not  be  worth  $1,500 
today.  It  has  been  driven  perhaps  10,000  miles,  and 
if  all  injuries  have  been  repaired  carefully  it  wiU  be 
worth  maybe  $1,200.  The  next  year  it  will  be  worth 
still  less,  and  so  on  until  it  can  be  sold  for  nothing  but 
the  price  of  its  metal  as  junk.  Similarly,  depreciation 
takes  place  in  the  tools  and  machinery  in  a  factory. 
The  product  must  sell  for  enough  more  than  its 
immediate  cost  to  offset  depreciation — to  pay  for 
necessary  repairs  and  to  enable  the  capitahst  to  lay 
by  something  with  which  to  replace  buildings  and 
equipment  when  the  old  are  worn  out. 


(Capital,  the  Partner  of  Ijihor  29 

Even  if  a  capitalist  wore  assured  of  ^'ettiii^  out  of 
an  industry  all  that  he  put  into  it,  that  assurance 
alone  would  scarcely  induce  him  to  work  and  save 
in  order  to  create  ca[)ital.  The  savajje  who  made 
the  canoe  gol  more  fish  as  a  reward  for  his  labor 
and  sacrifice  while  building.  The  modern  capitalist 
must  get  a  reward  too.  That  reward  we  call  interest. 
Interest  induces  men  to  give  up  present  enjoyment 
for  the  sake  of  greater  power  of  enjoyment  in  the 
future.  The  term  "interest"  is  commonly  used  to 
describe  the  sum  a  borrower  pays  for  the  privilege 
of  a  loan — the  use  of  capital. 

When  a  capitalist  receives  a  greater  reward  than  he 
could  get  for  lending  his  capital  to  some  one  else  on 
good  security,  we  call  that  excess  over  interest  " profd.'' 
The  hope  of  getting  l)ack  all  that  he  invested  plus 
interest  will  not  induce  a  man  to  put  his  savings  into 
an  uncertain  enterprise.  For  that  he  must  have  the 
prospect  of  unusual  rew  ard — profit.  Most  new  enter- 
prises are  uncertain,  and  if  profit  were  done  away 
with,  there  would  be  little  or  no  business  progress. 
If  a  capitalist  puts  his  own  time  into  the  management 
of  a  business,  he,  like  other  workers,  is  entitled  to 
wages  for  that  service  in  addition  to  interest  or  profit. 

Getting  capital.  So  far  we  have  l)een  speaking  of 
capital  as  "  things,*'  which  it  really  is.  In  everyday 
life  and  speech,  however,  it  is  represented  as  money. 
We  do  not  speak  of  the  capital  of  a  railroad  as  so 
many  engines,  cars,  and  miles  of  road.  \\  e  speak  of 
it  as  so  much  money  which  represents  the  worth  of 
the  engines,  cars,  and  road.     It  was  the  accumulated 


30 


Loyal  Citizenship 


National  City  Company 

Fig.  18.    Hidden  wealth  helps  no  one,  but  money  properly  invested 
aids  industry  the  world  over. 

savings,  in  money,  of  many  people,  that  provided  the 
capital  for  the  railroad.  Capital  for  a  modern  enter- 
prise is  not  provided  by  saving  actual  tools  or  ma- 
chines for  future  production.  The  money  that  repre- 
sents the  value  of  the  tools  or  machines  required  for 
production  is  saved  largely  from  the  incomes  of 
individuals,  and  we  speak  of  "saving  money,"  rather 
than  "saving  capital." 

Banks.  Hidden  savings  are  not  capital,  but  money 
deposited  in  a  bank  becomes  capital  when  it  is  lent  to 
persons  who  use  it  productively.     A  commercial  bank 


Capital,  Ihr  Parlrwr  of  Lalfor  3 1 

receives  money  on  deposit  and  lends  money  lor  sliorl 
periods  on  I  lie  note  (promise  to  pay)  of  the  borrower. 
Such  a  bank  is  formed  by  several  persons  joining 
together  and  paying  in  a  sum  of  money  to  create  the 
bank's  "capilak"'  I  liis  they  lend  to  others,  who 
may  use  it  in  buying  tools  or  machinery . 

In  addition  to  its  capital,  the  bank  receives  de- 
posits from  persons  w  ho  have  more  money  than  they 
care  to  keep  on  hand.  If  a  dozen  men  de})osit  a  total 
of  $50,000,  the  bank  must  be  prepared,  on  demand, 
to  pay  back  to  eacli  one  of  them  the  amount  of  his 
deposit.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  experience  has  shown 
that  they  will  not  all  come  at  once  for  their  money, 
and  that  if  the  bank  has  ten  or  twelve  thousand 
dollars  on  hand  it  will  be  enough  to  meet  actual  de- 
mands.   The  rest  the  bank  lends. 

Perhaps  a  bank  lends  twenty  thousand  dollars  to  a 
man  who  is  starting  a  new  factory.  As  soon  as  the 
factory  begins  to  sell  its  goods  a  new  lot  of  deposits 
flow  in  from  the  factory  and  its  employees.  In  this 
manner  banks  grow  and  become  increasingly  able  to 
aid  industry .  They  are  of  immense  im])ortance,  too, 
in  promoting  thrift. 

QUESTIONS 

How  is  "("ipilJil"  (Icfitifd?  \\  hat  oxiuiiploraii  von  pivc  of  primitive 
capitalP  \Miat  are  some  other  examples  of  eapitalP  W  hat  is  wealth? 
Clive  examples  of  wealth  (hat  are  not  capital.  What  is  property? 
What  reasons  can  you  jjive  for  respecting  the  rifjht  of  projH'rty? 
How  is  capital  produced?  Why  do  men  produce  it?  What  has  the 
right  of  property  to  do  with  the  process?  W  hy  are  patents  granted 
on  inventions?  Why  are  copyrights  granted  on  Inxiks  and  musical 
compositions?     IIow  has  the  use  of  capital  promoted  division  of 


32  Loyal  Citizenship 

labor?  Can  you  give  an  example?  What  effect  has  division  of  labor 
had  on  the  position  of  the  worker?  What  must  the  capitalist 
provide?  From  what  is  he  repaid?  What  items  must  be  included 
in  the  payment?  What  is  interest?  What  is  profit?  How  do  we 
ordinarily  speak  of  capital?  What  is  a  commercial  bank?  How 
does  it  aid  industry? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 
Patents  and  copyrights;    banks;    and  the  various  stages  in  the 
development  of  industry  as  outlined  in  such  books  as  Ely  and 
WHICKER,  Principles  of  Economics,  are  the  best  subjects  for  student 
reports.     See  list  of  references,  last  chapter. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

The  organized  class  should  take  up  the  question  of  protecting 
school  property,  such  as  books,  desks,  chairs,  walls,  stairways,  and 
playground  apparatus.  Such  property  is  all  capital — community 
capital — invested  in  education.  Its  preservation  can  be  helped  by 
class  action.  Rules,  with  penalties  for  breaking  them,  should  be 
made  by  the  class.  Offenders  should  be  tried  and  punished  by  the 
class  or  a  committee. 

It  would  be  very  helpful  at  this  point  to  have  a  local  banker  or 
merchant  give  a  talk  to  the  class  on  banking  and  its  relation  to 
capital  and  industry. 


CHAPTER  FIVE 
Getting  Capital:  Thru t 

Thrift.  To  make  (he  best  use  of  time,  strength, 
and  money,  Ihal  is  thrift.  A  thrifty  (•itiz(Mi  is  one 
who  uses  liis  iiicoino  wisely.  I  his  iisimlly  nicaiis 
that  he  spends  something  less  than  liis  intonic  and 
saves  the  difTerence.  People  throujj;!)  wliose  hands 
money  slij)s  easily  are  not  so  much  generous  as 
careless.  W  hen  a  real  occasion  for  generosity  comes 
they  are  likely  to  have  nothing  to  he  generous  with. 
But  going  without  all  the  comforts  and  })lcasurcs  of 
life  is  not  tlnift  —  that  is  waste  of  opportunity,  and 
waste  is  the  opposite  of  thrift.  Thrift  means  wise 
spending  as  well  as  wise  saving. 

Thrift  and  capital.  We  usually  think  of  thrift  as 
a  purely  private  virtue,  hut  it  is  of  the  utmost  impor- 
tance to  the  community.  We  have  already  seen  how 
capital  can  he  created  or  increased  only  hy  saving. 
Some  saving  is  done  hy  companies  that  set  aside 
part  of  their  revenue  to  replace  worn-out  capital  and 
to  extend  their  husiness.  However,  a  very  targe  part 
of  tlie  increase  in  capital  must  come  from  indiriduat 
savings  out  of  individual  incomes,  hecause  conunand 
over  most  things  that  are  produced  passes  (juickly 
into  individual  hands  in  the  form  of  interest,  profit, 
and  wages.  Without  new  capital  tiie  prospi'ril\  of 
the  comnmnity  cannot  increase. 

Thrift  and  the  rainy  day.  We  have  seen  that 
every  one  siiould  work,  hearing  his  j)arl  in  produc- 
tion, hut  work  alone  will  not  certainly  keep  one  from 
some  day  becoming  a  charge  upon  the  coinnuniity. 

33 


34 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  19.  Two  pages  from  the  actual  bank  account  of  a  thrifty 
carpenter.  Five  entries  of  interest,  computed  at  4  per  cent,  are 
shown  as  follows:  $8.5.3,  $9.16,  $9.32,  $16.1.5,  $21.20.  Note  that 
there  were  three  withdrawals  of  small  sums  during  a  period  when 
there  were  no  deposits.  Perhaps  the  carpenter  was  out  of  work 
then  and  had  to  fall  back  on  his  savings  account.  After  six  years, 
the  balance  of  this  account  was  about  $3000  —  the  reward  of  per- 
sistent saving. 

Saving  for  future  needs  seems  a  dreary  performance 
to  most  young  people.  Full  of  health  and  vigor,  they 
find  it  hard  to  realize  that  there  will  ever  be  a  time 
when  they  cannot  earn  a  living.  Yet  accident,  ill- 
ness, old  age,  and  death  visit  every  family.  Unem- 
ployment, whatever  its  cause,  may  stop  any  one's 
earnings.  For  these  reasons  thrifty  persons  seek  to 
lay  by  something  for  a  "  rainy  day.''' 

Savings  banks  :  interest.     It  is  chiefly  through  our 
many  savings  banks  that  the  opportunity  to  secure 


Celling  Capilal:  Thrift 


35 


Baltimore  Puhlic  SchouU 


Fig.  20.  The  work  of  this  school  savings  bank  is  done  by  pupils  se- 
lected through  roiuprtition.  Thfir  accounts  arc  checked  by  the  prin- 
cipal and  by  the  ollicers  of  tlie  re;jular  l);uik  wliere  the  money  of  the 
school  bank  is  kept.  Tlie  pupils  arc  paid  interest  on  their  deposits, 
which  total  many  hundreds  of  dollars. 


interest  on  small  savings  is  offered  to  people  gener- 
ally. Savings  banks  receive  deposits  as  small  as  one 
dollar,  and  they  lend  money  on  long-term  notes, 
usually  secured  by  real-estate  mortages.  Thry  pay 
inleresl  on  cleposils.  This  interest  is  usujilly  com- 
pounded semiannually;  that  is,  the  interest  is  added 
to  the  principal,  thus  making  a  new  principal  on 
which  interest  is  paid  (Fig.  19). 

At  four  per  cent  interest,  compounded  semian- 
nually, a  sum  of  money  will  double  in  seventeen 
years.    If  when  you  are  fourteen  years  old  you  have 


36  Loyal  Citizenship 

one  hundred  dollars  in  the  bank  and  simply  leave  it 
there,  you  will  have  two  hundred  when  you  are 
thirty-one,  four  hundred  when  you  are  forty-eight, 
and  eight  hundred  when  you  are  sixty-five.  The  gain 
will  be  made  without  any  effort  on  your  part;  you 
will  only  have  to  leave  the  money  in  the  bank.  Inter- 
est is  a  good  friend  to  have  working  for  you.  When 
you  have  saved  a  few  hundred  dollars,  you  can  buy 
with  it  shares  of  stock  in  a  business  enterprise.  Any 
boy  or  girl  can  by  thrift  and  until  tJie  help  of  a  savings 
bank  become  an  owner  of  capitat  (Fig.  20). 

The  thrift  stamps  of  the  United  States  are  a  means 
of  encouraging  saving  in  small  amounts.  The  postal 
savings  banks  of  the  government  give  perfect  security 
for  savings,  and  they  pay  a  low  rate  of  interest. 

Owning  a  home.  Of  all  forms  of  permanent 
property  that  are  used  for  our  immediate  comfort 
and  enjoyment,  the  most  important  is  a  home. 
Family  life  cannot  be  enjoyed  to  the  full  unless  there 
is  a  place  for  it.  Even  a  humble  dwelling  that 
belongs  to  those  whom  it  shelters  may  be  a  fitter 
place  for  a  home  than  the  finest  rented  house  (Fig. 
21).  When  one  owns  the  place  where  he  lives,  he 
takes  a  pleasure  in  beautifying  it,  in  planting  flowers 
and  shrubs,  and  in  caring  for  the  lawn  and  the  walks, 
that  he  could  not  otherwise  take. 

Home-owning  citizens  are  desirable  citizens.  When 
men  come  to  own  homes,  they  are  more  sober  of  judg- 
ment and  less  ivilling  to  consider  destructive  theories  in 
government  or  economics,  for  they  have  property  at 
stake.     The  ownership  of  a  home  gives  a  man  a 


(icUiiuj  Capilul:  Tliriji 


37 


Fig.   21.    Birthplace  of  Julm    llu-.wnJ   Pnvnc.    autliur   -I 

Sweet  Home,"  Easthanipton,  lx)ng  Island,  ISew  York. 


47878 


38  Loyal  Citizenship 

definite  place  in  the  community  in  which  lie  lives. 
Laying  money  aside  to  buy  a  home  is  one  of  the  best 
forms  of  saving. 

A  person  can  deposit  money  in  a  bank  until  he  has 
enough  to  buy  a  home  outright,  or  he  can  invest  his 
savings  in  a  building  and  loan  association.  When  he 
builds  or  buys  a  home  he  can  borrow  money  to  pay 
for  it  from  his  own  building  and  loan  association  and, 
in  effect,  pay  some  of  the  interest  on  the  loan  to  liim- 
self.  He  can,  too,  buy  a  house  by  making  a  cash 
payment  of  a  few  hundred  dollars  and  paying  the  rest 
of  the  purchase  in  monthly  installments.  It  costs  a 
little  more  to  buy  a  home  on  payments,  but  many 
people  would  never  save  enough  to  buy  one  outright 
for  cash.  The  fact  that  they  have  to  meet  a  payment 
every  month  makes  saving  compulsory. 

Insurance.  For  the  great  majority  of  persons  even 
hard  work  and  thrift  together  are  not  enough  to 
assure  independence  under  all  circumstances.  Sick- 
ness and  death  strike  when  least  expected.  There 
was  a  father,  for  example,  who  died  of  typhoid  fever, 
leaving  two  children  aged  five  and  two,  a  home  partly 
paid  for,  and  only  a  few  dollars  in  the  bank.  The 
heavy  bills  for  his  long  illness  and  the  expense  of  bur- 
ial came  just  at  the  time  when  his  earnings  stopped. 
The  result  was,  as  is  often  the  case,  that  the  family 
had  to  be  taken  care  of  tlirough  charity. 

There  is  a  better  way  of  meeting  misfortune  than  by 
depending  upon  charity,  and  that  is  by  insurance.  No 
one  can  foretell  just  when  the  head  of  any  family 
will  die.     But  a  study  of  statistics  of  mortality  will 


(icdiiKj  ( kipilal:  'JliriJ't 


39 


Fig.  22.  "(lliiise  'I'hciu  AwaN,"  a  iiew.spaptT  cartoun  by 
Harry  IMiir|)liy.  ((lop>Tifj;hU'd,  1920,  by  the  Star  Com- 
pany.  Reprinted  by  permission.) 

lell  almost  exactly  how  many  men  of  a  •^iveii  a^e 
will  die  ill  a  given  length  of  time.  1 1  is  possible, 
therefore,  to  tell  just  how  much  each  man  out  of  a 
hundred  or  a  thousand  must  ])ay  every  year  in  order 
to  create  a  fund  big  enough  to  })ay  a  thousand 
dollars  to  the  family  of  any  one  of  the  group  who 
dies.  By  creating  such  a  fund  (he  risk  of  dculii 
is  distribiiled  among  all  who  contribute.  That  is  nndual 
insurance.     There   are   also   corporations    that   sell 


40  Loyal  Citizenship 

policies  or  contracts  of  insurance  for  profit.  The  great 
old-line  insurance  companies  are  about  equally  di- 
vided between  the  two  types. 

Besides  the  old-line  insurance  companies  there  are 
fraternal  societies,  whose  chief  purpose  is  to  furnish 
insurance  at  a  low  cost  to  members.  Insurance  can 
be  had  to  cover  any  of  the  risks  of  life,  such  as  accident, 
illness,  old  age,  or  unemployment. 

Social  insurance.  Many  people  believe  that  taking 
out  insurance  should  not  be  left  to  the  voluntary 
action  of  individuals,  but  that  certain  forms  of  it,  at 
least,  should  be  compulsory.  They  further  contend 
that  a  matter  of  such  great  social  importance  as 
providing  insurance  should  be  the  care  of  the  govern- 
ment, and  that  it  should  not  be  left  to  depend  upon 
private  business  enterprise. 

Most  of  the  countries  of  the  world  have  adopted 
some  form  or  other  of  social  insurance  to  make  pro- 
vision for  working  people  against  accident,  illness, 
or  old  age.  The  cost  of  the  insurance  may  be 
apportioned  among  the  insured,  his  employer,  and 
the  government. 

A  compulsory  systern  of  social  insurance  involves  a 
limitation  of  liberty  that  only  extreme  necessity  can 
justify.  Forcing  people  into  thrift  cannot  make 
them  really  thrifty.  The  adoption  of  social  insurance 
in  our  country  will  be  much  discussed  during  the 
next  few  years. 


Gellina  dapilul:  Tlirijl  1 1 

QUESTIONS 
How  do  you  (lislirifiuisli  thrift  from  stiiigincss;  from  niiscrlin«'s.s? 
What  part  (lo(>s  thrift  play  in  the  creation  of  new  rapitali'  U  hat  is 
the  social  importance  of  savin-,'  for  a  "rainy  day  "i*  NN  hat  is  the  func- 
tion of  a  savings  bank.'  How  does  it  diller  from  a  commenial 
bank?  Give  an  example  of  the  earning  |H>wer  of  money  at  comixnind 
interest.  How  is  the  interest  on  thrift  stamps  paid?  What  soc-ial 
value  is  there  in  having  citizens  own  their  own  homes?  How  does 
home  ownership  benefit  the  individual?  How  can  you  get  a  home 
on  small  savings?  \N  hat  is  the  eirecl  of  misfortune  on  a  workman's 
family?  What  is  insurance?  Explain  how  it  works.  \\  hat  is  social 
insurance? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Savings  banks;  building  and  loan  associations;  thrift  stanifts; 
postal  .savings  banks;  social  insurance  in  the  several  countries  of 
the  world.  These  topics,  except  the  last,  can  best  be  investigated 
through  personal  interviews  with  bankers,  real-estate  men,  and 
postal  oflicials. 

A  student  assigned  to  interviewing  a  business  man  whom  he  may 
not  know  perst)nally,  should  go  with  a  lettLT  of  introduction  from 
the  teacher,  or  the  interview  should  be  arranged  for  by  correspon- 
dence begun  by  the  student.  The  student  should  have  well  outlined 
in  his  mind  the  questions  that  he  wishes  to  put.  and  inunediately 
after  the  interview  he  should  make  notes  of  all  that  was  sjiid  on  the 
subject  discussed.  The  interviewer  should  remember  that  the  time 
that  a  business  man  can  spare  from  his  work  is  very  limited  and  that 
he  will  appreciate  brevity. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 
Found  a  thrift  club  among  the  meml)ers  of  the  class.     Have  an 
olTicer  of  a  local  savings  bank  talk  to  the  class  alnnit  siiving  and  let 
him  suggest  a  plan  to  be  used  l)y  the  club. 


CHAPTER  SIX 
The  Function  of  Money 

Three  terms  that  should  be  distinguished.  In  our 
previous  discussions,  especially  of  capital  and  thrift, 
we  have  repeatedly  spoken  of  money,  without  con- 
cerning ourselves  about  what  money  really  is.  We 
speak  of  the  prices  of  desired  articles  in  dollars  and 
cents,  and  we  compare  the  values  of  merchandise 
offered  at  different  stores.  But  ordinarily  we  do 
not  make  clear  distinctions  between  the  terms 
"value"  and  "money"  and  "prices."  It  is  impor- 
tant, nevertheless,  that  we  should  do  so. 

Value.  When  a  primitive  man  wanted  a  pair  of 
skin  shoes,  he  might  have  made  them  himself,  or  he 
might  have  exchanged  for  them  something  that  he 
already  possessed.  The  big  question  for  him,  as  for 
us  under  similar  circumstances,  was  what  he  should 
have  to  give  for  them.  This  would  have  depended  on 
the  supply  of  shoes  and  on  the  need  for  the  articles  he 
was  prepared  to  offer  in  exchange.  If  there  were  not 
enough  shoes  for  the  feet  of  the  village,  he  would  have 
had  to  give  more  for  them  than  if  shoes  were  plenty. 
If  he  had  spears  to  offer  and  these  were  rare  and 
much  desired,  he  could  have  got  more  for  them 
than  if  a  dozen  of  the  kind  leaned  against  the  door 
of  every  hut.  This  would  have  been  true  regardless 
of  the  fact  that  it  may  have  taken  more  labor 
to  make  shoes  than  spears,  or  that  one  of  these 
articles  may  have  been  essentially  more  useful  than 
the  other. 

The  worth  of  one  commodity  expressed  in  terms  of 

42 


The  Function  of  Money  \'.\ 

another  commodity  is  value.  The  value  of  any  article 
is  (k'lcrniiiK'd  by  the  deiiiaiul  for  it  and  the  siJi)|)l\ 
of  it.  We  cannot  inidcrslaiid  fiillN  the  working'  of 
this  rule  until  uc  liavo  learned  soinclliin;:  of  the 
funetion  of  money  in  exchange. 

Money.  Every  one  is  familiar  with  (lie  corninorui 
forms  of  money.  There  are  gold,  silver,  nickel  alios, 
and  bronze  coins;  and  besides  these  we  have  bills, 
which  are  as  readily  accepted  as  coins.  1'he  coins 
all  bear  the  stamp  of  the  United  States  and  are 
made  at  its  mints.  Gold  is  the  })asis  of  our  wliole 
system  of  currency,  and  the  value  of  all  forms  of 
money  is  expressed  in  terms  of  standard  gold.  The 
best   way   to   get   information   about    our   different 


[  .  S,  (injoj/iitd  Surriy 

Fig.  23.  Plaror  niininj:  noar  Nomo,  Maslva.  (inld  rcprt'siMits  IalM>r. 
The  world's  slock  of  ^'old  lias  Ik-cii  sfciirfd  at  a  sast  i'\|M'ndi(ur<'  of 
capital,  labor,  and  lifo. 


44  *  Loyal  Citizenship 

issues  of  paper  money  is  to  read  carefully  the  matter 
printed  on  the  bills  themselves.  There  are  three 
kinds  of  notes  issued  by  the  United  States:  (1)  gold 
certificates  and  (2)  silver  certificates,  each  of  which 
bears  evidence  that  the  United  States  has  in  its  vaults 
a  given  amount  of  gold  or  silver  that  it  will  exchange 
for  the  note;  (3)  Treasury  notes,  which  are  simply 
the  promises  of  the  United  States  to  pay  to  bearer 
stated  amounts  of  money.  These  forms  of  notes  are 
declared,  like  gold  and  silver  coins,  to  be  legal  tender; 
that  is,  the  law  requires  that  they  be  received  at  their 
face  value  when  tendered  in  payment  of  any  debt 
between  individuals.  Bank  notes,  which  people 
seldom  take  the  trouble  to  distinguish  from  legal- 
tender  notes,  are  issued,  under  very  strict  govern- 
ment control,  by  National  and  Federal  Reserve  banks. 
They  are  the  promises  of  the  banks  to  pay  the 
amounts  printed  on  them. 

Money  a  medium  of  exchange.  If  a  savage  had  a 
spear  that  he  w  ished  to  part  with  for  a  pair  of  shoes, 
he  had  first  to  hunt  up  a  man  with  shoes  to  spare. 
This  might  well  have  caused  him  a  good  deal  of 
bother,  and  when  he  found  a  man  with  shoes,  that 
man  might  not  have  wanted  a  spear  at  all.  If,  how- 
ever, the  man  with  the  spear  could  have  exchanged 
it  for  some  article  that  other  people  generally  were 
willing  to  take  in  exchange  for  their  possessions,  it 
would  surely  have  been  good  business  for  him  to  do 
so.  In  fact,  that  is  what  he  did ;  and  some  generally 
accepted  article  or  articles  early  became  the  medium 
through  which  exchanges  were  made. 


The  I' unci  ion  of  Money 


Fig.  21.  NNainjxim  mikI  cowrii"  shells,  \y.irs  of  s;ilt,  (.itllr.  jukI 
weights  of  iiR'tnl  hiivo  .served  as  currency.  Cowrie  shells  are  slill  ii-^i.l 
as  money  in  parts  of  Afriea  and  .\sia 

There  have  l)eeii  iiiaiiy  siuli  acreplal)le  articles 
or  forms  of  money.  The  >,orth  Amerieaii  Iiulians 
used  strings  or  belts  of  waiiipuiii  jjiirplc  and  white 
pieces  of  shells,  made  into  hollow,  polished  cNlindcrs. 
Among  Ihe  early  settlers  in  this  country,  heas  rr  skins 
and  tobacco,  as  well  as  wampum,  often  serv«'d  as 
money.  We  are  told  that  the  people  of  Sparta,  in 
ancient  Greece,  used  iron  as  money;  and  the  Ho- 
mans  at  first  used  large  weights  of  copper  as  cin- 
rency.  Gold  and  silver,  however,  were  more  con- 
venient to  handle  than  the  baser  metals,  as  a  small 
amount  of  them  had  a  nmch  larger  purchasing  i)()\\  er. 
Therefore,  in  time,  they  displaced  all  other  metals  as 
standard  money.  Finally,  gold  alone  came  to  be 
the  standard  money  everywhere  excei)t  in  China  and 
India  and  a  few  other  places. 


46  Loyal  Citizenship 

Our  silver,  nickel  alloy,  and  bronze  coins  are  only 
tokens  useful  in  making  change.  Like  our  paper 
currency,  they  represent  values  fixed  in  gold.  When 
paper  currency  is  not  readily  exchangeable  for  gold,  its 
value  falls  at  once.  That  is  why  the  paper  currency 
of  many  European  countries  has  such  a  low  exchange 
value  in  comparison  with  United  States  money. 

Checks  as  money.  Depositors  in  banks  generally 
have  checking  accounts.  Instead  of  withdrawing 
actual  money  from  banks  and  paying  all  their  bills  in 
currency,  they  simply  give  their  checks.  This  prac- 
tice is  very  convenient  and  has  increased  rapidly  in 
the  last  twenty  years.  When  the  manufacturer  men- 
tioned in  the  chapter  on  "Capital"  got  a  loan  of 
$20,000,  he  did  not  receive  $20,000  in  coin  or  paper 
money.  He  received  merely  a  credit  to  that  amount 
on  the  books  of  the  bank.  Against  this  credit  he 
drew  his  checks  to  pay  for  machinery,  coal,  electric 
current,  water,  raw  materials,  and  wages.  These 
checks,  after  some  circulation  perhaps,  were  depos- 
ited in  banks  (Fig.  25). 

WeSTCHESTERTrUST  CoMRVNY  SO-S3 


l/^^-^^^-t^ 


.^J?. 


^fi^AtCZ*^'  TX<JV  a,*,>uid     y^. 


Fig.  25.  A  bank  check.  By  writing  his  name  on  the  back  of  this 
check,  the  man  to  whose  order  it  is  drawn  can  make  it  payable  to 
another  person. 


The  Funclion  of  Money 


i: 


Fio.  26.  Tho  cloarinp  lionso  for  tJio  hanks  of  a  frroat  city.  Karli 
banks  representative  has  hrouf^ht  the  outside  cheeks  that  his  hank 
has  taken.   He  will  exchange  these  for  checks  drawn  on  his  hank. 

If  a  check  was  deposited  in  the  l)ank  on  which  it 
was  drawn,  all  that  happened  was  that  one  man's 
account  was  charged  and  the  other  man's  account 
was  credited  willi  the  amount  of  the  check.  'I  he 
medium  of  exciianf;e  in  that  transaction  was  hank 
credit  represented  by  a  check.  If  tlie  coal  dealer,  for 
example,  deposited  his  check  willi  aiiolhcr  hank  than 
the  one  on  which  it  was  drawn,  the  result  would  not 
have  been  very  different.  A  clerk  from  the  coal 
dealer's  bank  would  simply  have  taken  the  check  to 
the  clearing  house  along  with  the  rest  of  tin*  cliccks  on 
other  banks  received  diu-ing  one  business  day.  At  a 
clearing  house  the  clerks  of  all  the  l)anks  of  a  cil^ 
bring  together   "outside  checks."     They    then   ex- 


48  Loyal  Citizenship 

change  checks  with  one  another,  and  only  small 
balances  are  settled  in  cash.  The  quantity  of  medium 
of  exchange  is  thus  very  much  enlarged  by  the  use  of 
bank  credits  represented  by  checks  (Fig.  26). 

Prices.  The  value  of  anything  expressed  in  money 
— what  you  have  to  pay  to  get  it — is  called  its  price. 
Money  is  therefore  a  measure  of  value  as  well  as  a 
medium  of  exchange.  If  you  shorten  a  measuring 
stick,  the  stick  will  have  to  be  laid  down  more  times 
to  cover  a  given  distance.  If  the  value  of  the  dollar 
is  reduced,  more  dollars  will  be  required  to  make  any 
purchase,  and  we  say  that  prices  rise.  An  increase  in 
the  supply  of  money  lowers  its  value  and  raises  prices 
just  as  an  increase  in  the  supply  of  spears,  among 
primitive  men,  would  have  lowered  the  barter  value 
of  spears. 

The  high  prices  in  this  country  following  our  en- 
trance into  the  Great  War  were  largely  due  to  the 
issuance  of  vast  quantities  of  Federal  Reserve  notes 
and  to  an  enormous  expansion  of  bank  credits,  which, 
as  we  have  seen,  often  take  the  place  of  money.  All 
together,  the  result  was  to  reduce  the  value  of  money 
about  one  half — in  effect,  to  double  prices.  In  Ger- 
many so  much  paper  money  was  issued  that  it  took 
fourteen  marks  to  buy  what  one  mark  had  bought 
before  the  war.  There  is  great  temptation  for  a  gov- 
ernment when  hard  pressed  for  money  to  issue  a 
billion  dollars  or  so  in  printed  currency,  declare  it 
legal  tender,  and  pay  it  out  to  its  creditors.  There 
can,  nevertheless,  be  no  escape  from  the  rule  that  the 
more  money  there  is  the  less  it  is  worth.     The  gold 


The  Function  of  Money 


InltThnrnugh  Rufi't  Trinsil  Cumpany 


Fig.  27.  "The  Shrunken  Nickel."  \\  Iit-n-  61  nickels  «(miI(I  I.iin  :i 
ton  of  coal  before  Ainericii  entered  the  war,  tliev  would  l>ii\  oiiIn  half 
a  ton  in  1919. 


produced  each  year  is  so  little  in  comparison  \\'\[\\ 
that  already  in  existence  that  gold  is  by  far  the  steadi- 
est measure  of  value. 


QUESTIONS 

What  is  value?  How  is  it  determined?  Ciive  iin  example.  N\  hat 
different  kinds  of  United  States  money  are  there.^  What  is  meant 
by  the  expression,  "Money  is  a  medium  of  exchanpe".^  Why  is 
such  a  medium  necessary?  Mention  some  tliiufrs  that  have  In'en 
used  as  money.  Why  has  pold  become  the  iini\ersal  money?  In 
what  sense  are  checks  money?  What  eirect  has  their  u.se  had  on 
the  quantity  of  money?  Explain  the  statement.  "Money  is  a 
measure  of  value."  What  are  "prices"?  What  relation  has  the 
quantity  of  money  to  value  and  prices?  Give  examples.  Why  is 
gold  such  a  steady  measure  of  value? 


50  Loyal  Citizenship 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Money  in  colonial  times;  Continental  cnrrency;  Confederate 
paper  money.  Prices  after  the  Civil  War.  The  demand  for  the 
free  coinage  of  silver  as  expressed  in  the  presidential  campaign  of 
1896.  Prices  in  European  countries  during  and  after  the  Great 
War.  The  prevailing  exchange  rates  for  pounds,  francs,  marks,  lire, 
expressed  in  terms  of  our  currency.  It  is  not  to  be  expected  that 
some  of  these  topics  can  be  more  than  touched  upon. 

The  best  work  for  reference  on  money  is  Bullock,  C.  J.,  Monetary 
History  of  the  United  States.  See  also  general  works  on  Economics 
previously  referred  to,  and  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions  of 
American  Government,  Chapter  34. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 
Have  the  class,  with  the  help  of  mothers  and  fathers,  compile  and 
put  on  the  blackboard  a  table  showing  about  what  were  the  retail 
prices  of  common  articles  of  home  use  fifteen  years  ago,  and  what 
they  are  today. 


E.  a. 


Fig.  28.  Ancient  Greek 
money.  A  four-drachma 
piece  with  head  of  Alex- 
ander the  Great. 


CHAPTER  SEVEN 
Demand,  Supply,  and  Competition 

Demand.  We  have  noted  that  the  value  of  any 
article,  including  money,  is  determined  by  the  de- 
mand for  it  and  the  supply  of  it.  It  ^vill  repay  us 
to  consider  more  carefully  how  this  j)rinciple  works 
out.  The  first  few  hundred  boxes  of  great  "Black 
Tartarian"  cherries  hurried  by  express  from  a 
California  orchard  to  the  INew^  York  market  brings  a 
fancy  price,  for  the  demand  is  far  greater  than  the 
supply.  As  the  season  progresses  and  larger  and 
larger  shipments  arrive,  the  commission  merchants 
have  to  lower  the  price  to  move  the  j)iles  of  boxes 
from  their  warehouses.  A  few^  people,  who  have  the 
means,  will  buy  the  earliest  and  highest-priced 
cherries;  but  most  of  us,  before  buying,  have  to 
consider  carefully  whether  other  things  will  not  be 
more  useful  to  us  than  cherries. 

There  is  a  limifed  demand  for  cherries  at  a  dollar  a 
pound,  and  there  is  a  very  great  demand  for  them  at  ten 
cents  a  pound.  The  ten-cent  price  will  usually  pre- 
vail when  it  becomes  necessary  to  make  that  low- 
price  in  order  to  sell  enough  cherries  to  dispose  of 
the  stock  on  hand.  Then  all  j)urchasers  will  pay 
ten  cents,  including  those  who  might  be  willing,  if 
cherries  were  scarce,  to  {)ay  one  dollar. 

Where  a  reduction  of  a  few  cents  in  the  })rice  of  an 
article  will  vastly  increase  its  consumption  or  a  rise 
of  a  few  cents  correspondingly  decrease  it,  the  de- 
mand for  that  article  is  said  to  be  elastic.  Where 
great  iluctuations  in  price  are  met  by  only  slight 

51 


52 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  29.  These  cantaloupes  were  raised  in  a  hothouse  at  Fairbanks, 
Alaska  ;  and  they  sold  there  for  five  dollars  apiece.  At  Muscatine, 
Iowa,  they  would  have  sold  for  perhaps  five  cents  apiece.  Gold 
mining  is  the  principal  business  at  Fairbanks,  and  the  supply  of 
home-grown  melons  is  extremely  hmited.  At  Muscatine,  however, 
melons  are  raised  in  great  quantities,  and  a  good  many  of  them  must 
be  offered  in  exchange  for  a  quarter  of  an  ounce  of  minted  gold. 

changes  in  demand,  the  demand  is  said  to  be  inelastic. 
The  demand  for  luxm:-ies  —  California  cherries,  for 
example  —  is  very  elastic.  The  demand  for  neces- 
saries is  inelastic.  We  need  bread  so  regularly  and 
so  much  that  we  will  pay  what  we  must  to  get  it. 

Supply.  When  men  cultivated  the  soil  by  scratch- 
ing it  with  sharp  sticks,  they  received  a  small  return 
from  it.  As  they  applied  better  tools  and  came  to 
work  more  steadily,  the  land  responded  and  brought 
forth  more  abundantly.  There  comes  a  time,  how- 
ever, when  a  farmer  who  has  been  getting  about 
twenty  bushels  of  wheat  to  the  acre  finds  that  it  will 


Demand,  Supply,  and  Compcldioii  5!^ 

lake  as  iimcli  lahor  and  caj)!!;!!  to  increase  llic  \ii'l(l 
by  ten  bushels  as  it  did  to  j)roduce  the  orij,niial 
twenty.  'Jliis  illustrates  what  is  known  as  the  law 
of  dinunisldng  returns.  It  applies  not  only  to  agri- 
culture but  also  to  the  production  of  such  things  as 
coal,  iron,  and  oil,  which  come  out  of  the  ground. 
Unless  there  are  new  discoveries  or  iii\  eiilioii>.  lite 
supply  of  those  Ih'uujs  which  come  directly  from  the 
earth,  within  a  given  producing  area,  can  he  in- 
creased only  at  an  increasing  cost  for  each  unit  cf 
production  (the  bushel  of  wheat  or  ton  of  coal  will 
be  more  costly). 

On  the  other  hand,  most  manufactured  articles 
obey  a  contrary'  law,  that  of  increasing  returns.  I'o 
make  one  chair  by  hand  is  an  expensive  job.  It 
costs  much  less,  for  each  chair,  to  make  many  hun- 
dreds of  chairs  in  a  factory.  The  more  chairs  a  fac- 
tory makes,  the  cheaper  it  should  be  able  to  sell  them, 
up  to  the  point  where  the  business  becomes  unwieldy. 
In  the  case,  then,  of  manufactured  articles  it  is  gener- 
ally true  that  production  on  a  greater  scale  lowers  the 
cost  for  each  unit  of  production.  The  lower  the  cost, 
the  lower  may  be  the  selling  price;  and  the  lower  the 
selling  price  (under  normal  conditions),  the  greater 
the  demand. 

Monopoly.  dood  stone  arrowheads  were  made 
chielly  from  flint,  and  the  most  suitable  Hint  was  to 
be  found  only  within  limited  areas.  Suppose  that  a 
wandering  savage  stumbled  on  the  first  suj)ply  of 
this  stone  in  the  experience  of  his  tribe  and  that  he 
kept  its  location  a  secret.     He  alone  could  supply 


54  Loyal  Citizenship 

arrowheads  of  the  most  desired  inalerial.  He  would 
have  a  monopoly  of  their  produelioii  and  could  fix 
the  barter  price  to  suil  himself.  If  he  fixed  it  very 
high,  he  could  sell  only  a  few  of  them.  If  he  fixed  it 
low  enough  he  could  sell  to  every  hunter  in  the  tribe. 
He  would,  if  shrewd  enough,  fix  the  barter  price  at 
ihe  point  where  the  price  multiplied  by  the  number  of 
sales  would  give  him  the  largest  return  in  wampum  or 
food  or  such  articles  as  shoes.  That  point  would  be 
determined  according  to  wliether  the  arrowhead-making 
industry  obeyed  the  law  of  diminishing  or  of  increasing 
returns  and  ivhether  the  demand  was  elastic  or  inelastic. 

If  there  was  only  a  little  of  the  desired  flint  in  sight 
and  more  could  be  obtained  only  by  tireless  searching, 
the  man  w  ith  the  flint  monopoly  w  ould  fix  the  barter 
price  high,  because  the  law  of  diminishing  returns 
would  apply  to  his  enterprise.  If  the  flint  was  plenti- 
ful and  his  skill  in  making  grew  with  practice,  he 
would  probably  fix  the  price  low,  because  the  law  of 
increasing  returns  would  apply. 

If  the  arrowheads  of  this  particular  flint  were 
necessary  to  a  hunter's  success  and  on  that  success 
depended  the  food  of  the  hunter  and  his  family,  the 
man  with  the  flint  monopoly  could  get  a  much  higher 
price  (the  demand  being  inelastic)  than  if  there  were 
good  substitutes  for  his  arrowheads  or  if  there  were 
abundant  suppHes  of  other  foods  than  game  (the 
demand  for  the  arrowheads  being  elastic). 

The  same  principles  operate  in  the  case  of  a  mod- 
ern monopoly.  Monopolies  are  most  dangerous  when 
they  control  a  necessity  or  near  necessity  of  life,  the 


Demand,  Sii/)/}ly,  (uid  ( ^oiiifx'lilioii  .)) 

production  of  wliicli  ol)c\s   the  hiw   ol"  (liiiiiiii>liiiig 
returns. 

Competition.  Now  let  us  supjjosc  llial  llicNslidlr 
tribe  knew  where  to  find  an  al)un(laiit  sup|)l\  of 
the  favored  stone.  livery  tribesman  skilled  in 
chip})ing  ilint  would  be  free  to  use  this  material. 
He  would  offer  his  product  in  coinpelilion  with  the 
work  of  all  the  rest.  ICaeh  would  try  his  best  to 
make  belter  arrowheads  than  his  competitors.  'I  he 
price  would  be  determined  by  the  free  operuliou  of 
the  laws  of  supply  and  demand.  In  the  lonj;  run,  each 
man  would  be  willin*;  to  take  a  barter  })rice  that 
would  repay  him  for  the  trouble  of  gettinj;  the  flint. 
for  his  labor  in  fashioning;  the  arrowheads,  and  for 
the  labor  and  saving  represented  by  the  rude  imple- 
ments in  his  workshop.  In  modern  industry  these 
price  factors  would  correspond  to  the  value  of  raw 
materials,  the  wages  of  labor,  and  interest  on  the 
capital  invested.  Taken  together,  they  constitute 
the  cost  of  production  of  any  commodity.  If  the 
price  of  any  article  rises  much  above  this  level,  new 
capital  and  labor  will  be  put  to  work  at  producing 
it  because  of  the  prospect  of  profit.  Thus  the  supply 
will  be  increased  and  the  price  lowered.  If,  however, 
the  price  falls  nmch  below  the  cost  of  j)roducti()n, 
labor  and  capital  will  go  into  other  channels  until 
the  supply  has  been  decreased  and  the  priie  raised 
(Fig.  29). 

Competition,  within  reasonable  limits,  maki's  for 
good  service  and  for  well-made  goods.  \\  herever  it 
exists,  it  is  an  automatic  regulator  of  prices.    "Cut- 


56  Loyal  Citizenship 

throat  competition,"  however,  never  results  in 
permanent  advantage  to  consumers.  The  waste  and 
loss  involved  in  such  competition  must  in  the  end 
fall  upon  consumers.  Often  such  competition  has 
paved  the  way  for  monopoly,  as  when  producers 
have  entered  into  combines  to  escape  ruinous  com- 
petition among  themselves  (in  spite  of  laws  designed 
to  prevent  them  from  doing  so). 

Wages  and  labor.  When  a  worker  using  his  own 
tools  and  materials  makes  or  finishes  a  usable  article, 
he  pays  himself  for  his  labor  by  using  the  article  or 
by  selling  it.  But  in  these  days  of  modern  industry, 
with  its  minute  division  of  labor  and  its  large  use  of 
machinery,  few  men  work  with  materials  and  tools 
of  their  own  and  turn  out  a  completed  article.  Each 
man  does  a  bit  towards  production,  as  in  the  case  of 
the  woolen  suit.  The  Wyoming  sheep  herder  and  the 
Massachusetts  spinner  are  paid  out  of  the  price  of 
the  suit,  but  this  is  done  very  indirectly.  If  each  of 
them  had  to  wait  for  the  long  process  of  production 
to  be  completed  before  he  got  his  share  of  the  product, 
he  would  starve.  Employers — capitalists — besides 
providing  the  outfit  and  sheep  in  the  case  of  the 
herder,  and  machinery  and  wool  in  the  case  of  the 
spinner,  advance  out  of  their  capital  weekly  or 
monthly  money  payments  to  the  workers.  Such 
advances  are  called  ivages.  In  some  form  or  other 
every  worker  of  w  hatever  grade  receives  wages. 

Wages,  under  natural  conditions,  are  determined  by 
the  supply  of  and  demand  for  labor.  In  this  respect 
labor  is  a  conunodity  like  cotton,  wool,  or  iron.     It 


Demand,  Sujjply.  and  (.onijjclitiorL  ')' 


Library  of  Congms 

Vu:.  30.    "Labor,"    a    painting   by   Charles   SpraRiic    IVarco.     Thi- 
reward  of  such  workers  was  iiieaf^cr. 

differs  from  other  commodities,  however,  in  llial 
the  laborer  is  iiuiivisibly  uiiilcd  lo  his  labor.  We 
cannot  safely  disregard  this  factor  or  treat  human 
labor  as  if  it  were  a  thing  merely  to  be  bought  as 
cheaply  as  the  law  of  supply  and  demand  will  allow. 
Wages  can  not  long  remain  either  less  than  will  enable 
the  worker  to  live,  or  more  than  the  value  irhich  his 
labor  adds  to  the  thing  on  wliich  he  uorks. 

In  this  country  there  has  been  a  great  aihance 
in  the  standard  of  living  during  the  last  (.iilury. 
Real  wages  (wages  measured  by  what  they  nsIU  buy) 
have  increased  greatly,  and  the  general  welfare 
of  workers  has  been  permanently  raised.  If  labor 
were  to  be  regarded  merely  as  a  conunodity,  this 
would  be  a  misfortune  to  ever>'  user  of  labor  or  of 
the   things    that    labor    makes,      lint    a    general    iin- 


58 


Loyal  Citizenship 


U.  S.  Bureau  of  Farm  Management 


Fig.  31.  Reaping  and  binding  wheat  with  modern  farm  machinery. 
The  reward  of  these  men  is  vastly  more  than  was  that  of  primitive 
agricultural  workers. 

provement  in  the  condition  of  most  people  cannot 
be  regarded  as  a  misfortune.  With  better  food, 
better  hving  conditions,  and  better  education,  work- 
ers have  become,  on  the  whole,  more  efficient  than 
before. 

Rent.  Where  a  family  does  not  own  its  home,  it 
pays  "rent"  for  the  house  or  apartment  in  which  it 
lives.  Part  of  this  payment,  of  course,  represents 
interest  on  the  capitai  invested  in  the  building.  The 
rest  is  for  the  use  of  the  land  on  which  the  building 
stands.  For  our  present  purposes  only  the  part  paid 
for  the  use  of  the  land  is  properly  termed  rent.  Rent 
is  what  is  paid  for  the  use  of  land  or  other  natural 
resources  such  as  water  power.  If  there  are  two  farms 
of  the  same  size,  equally  distant  from  a  good  market, 


Demand,  Supply,  and  Conipelitum  59 

but  one  of  llicin  having  a  rich,  wcll-walcrcd  soil,  llic 
other  having  a  thin,  stony  soil,  subject  lo  (hougiit, 
you  certainly  would  prefer  the  first  one.  If  with 
equal  expenditure  of  labor  the  first  farm  would 
produce  $3,000  worth  of  grain,  and  the  second  i)ut 
$1,500  worth,  you  could  pay  any  amount  less  lliaii 
$1,500  as  rent  for  the  furst  farm  and  still  make  more 
money  than  on  the  second,  rent  free.  There  are 
always  some  farms  that  just  repay  the  labor  and 
capital  wliidi  are  used  in  cultivating  tliem,  leaving 
nothing  for  rent.  The  difference  between  wliat  such  a 
farm  ivill  yietd  and  ivfiat  a  better  farm  iritt  yietd  is  tlie 
thing  your  rent  pays  for.  If  you  own  your  farm. 
you  still  enjoy  this  advantage;  but  you  paid  the 
rent  all  at  once  in  the  purchase  price. 

Some  people  argue  that  rent  is  an  unfair  reward 
for  mere  good  fortune  in  getting  a  favorable  site, 
and  that  rent  ought  to  be  taken  away  from  those 
who  receive  it,  by  a  tax — '' tlie  singie  tax."  Most 
people  who  own  land  that  produces  a  high  rent, 
however,  have  bought  that  land  at  a  high  ])rice. 
We  may  say  that  by  so  doing  they  have  paid  the 
rent  in  advance.  To  them  the  single  tax  would  be 
extremely  unjust. 

QUESTIONS 

How  doos  loworinj?  llio  price  of  a  commodity  afTcct  the  demand  for 
it.^  What  is  meant  I)y  elastic  demand;  inehistic  demand;'  For  what 
classes  of  connnodities  is  demand  elastic?  (Jive  examples.  For 
what  cla.sses  is  it  inelastic.^  Give  examples.  \\  hat  is  the  law  of 
diminishing  returns.^  To  what  sources  of  production  does  it  apply? 
What  is  the  law  of  increasing  returns?  \\  tiere  does  it  apply?  What 
is  monopoly?     Give  examples  of  monopoly.     What  considerations 


60  Loyal  Citizenship 

govern  a  monopolist  in  fixing  the  price  of  his  commodity?  In  what 
circumstances  will  he  fix  it  at  a  relatively  low  point?  When  are 
monopolies  most  dangerous  to  the  public  welfare?  How  will  prices 
be  determined  if  competition  exists?  What  has  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion to  do  with  prices  under  competitive  conditions?  Why?  How 
is  labor  now  paid?  Why  is  this  necessary?  In  what  respects  is 
labor  like  other  commodities?  In  what  respects  is  it  different?  Can 
we  afford  to  neglect  these  points  of  difference?  What  are  the  bottom 
and  top  limits  of  wages,  in  the  long  run?  Is  improvement  in  the 
prevailing  standard  of  living  a  good  thing?  Why?  In  what  sense 
is  the  word  "rent"  used  in  this  chapter?  What  is  the  reason  for 
differences  in  rent?  By  what  kind  of  sites  is  the  rent  of  all  other 
sites  measured?    Who  gets  the  rent  if  you  own  the  land  you  use? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Construct  the  demand  curve  for  any  commodity  in  the  local 
market,  such  as  strawberries,  green  corn,  and  potatoes.  Students 
will  need  the  aid  of  their  parents  or  of  local  dealers  in  securing  data 
for  constructing  this  curve.  See  which  pupil  can  bring  in  the  longest 
fist  of  articles  that  are  sold  under  conditions  approaching  monopoly. 
Wages  in  your  city  and  the  single  tax  will  be  interesting  topics. 
See  general  works  previously  mentioned.  On  the  single  tax  see 
FiLLEBROWN,  C.  B.,  The  A,  B,  C  of  Taxation,  who  favors  it,  and 
Plehn,  C.  C,  Introduction  to  Public  Finance,  who  opposes  it. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Have  the  city  or  county  assessor  or  some  other  qualified  person 
talk  to  the  class  on  land  values  (which  are  usually  proportionate  to 
rents)  and  the  reasons  for  differences  in  values. 


PART  TWO 
THE  FUNDAMENTALS  OF  CITIZENSHIP 

Liberty  and  Democracy 


It  is  a  capital  error  to  fail  to  recognize 
the  vital  need  of  good  laws.  It  is  also 
a  capital  error  to  believe  that  good  laws 
will  accomplish  anything  unless  the  aver- 
age  man   has   the   right   stuff   in   him. 

Theodore  Roosevelt 


CHAPTER  EIGHT 

>  'J  Hi:  I'lUN  n,i:(;i;s  of  Crri/.i;Nsnip 

Americart  Jiberty.  WehavesecMi  llial  two  princi- 
ples— liberty  and  cooperation — are  at  the  basis  of 
human  happiness.  Like  the  two  (hid"  j)arls  of  a  ina- 
rhin(\  they  must  ]»'  nicely  adjusted  lo  one  anollicr. 
If  there  be  too  nnich  of  one,  tliere  cannot  l)e  enouj^li 
of  the  other.  This  country  of  ours  was  established 
on  a  higher  ideal  of  freedom  than  the  world  had 
known  before.  The  Declaralion  of  Imlrpeudeiwc 
stated  that  "governments  were  instituted  among 
men"  to  secure  certain  "inalienable  rights,"  among 
which  were  "life,  liberty,  and  the  })ursuit  of  happi- 
ness." Thus  the  principles  of  our  country  were  de- 
clared at  its  birth,  and  to  those  principles  it  has 
remained  true  (Figs.  32  and  33).  The  United  Slates 
assures  each  of  its  citizens  all  the  freedom  that  he  can 
enjoy  without  interfering  ivith  some  one  else's  freedom. 
Of  course,  conduct  that  breaks  down  the  coopera- 
tion of  our  citizens  for  common  ends  or  which  con- 
flicts with  the  general  welfare  cannot  be  justified  in 
the  name  of  liberty. 

Citizenship.  Children  born  in  the  United  States, 
of  American  parents,  are  by  reason  of  that  fact  citi- 
zens. So  are  children  born  of  foreign  parents, 
unless  when  they  reach  the  age  of  twenty-one  they 
choose  to  retain  the  nationality  of  their  parents. 
Any  white  foreigner  (or  person  of  African  descent) 
can  be  naturalized  after  five  years  of  residence,  if  he 
can  establish  that  he  is  of  good  moral  character  and 
understands  our  system  of  government.     In  most 

63 


64 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  32.   A  beach  patrol  of      ,  I   Guard  Life-Saving  Service. 

Directly  and  indirectly,  our  country  constantly  protects  the  lives, 
liberty,  and  property  of  its  citizens. 

evening  schools  there  are  naturalization  classes  in 
which  those  who  have  declared  their  intention  to 
become  citizens — ^who  have  "taken  out  their  first 
papers" — are  prepared  for  citizenship.  Except  for 
the  right  of  participating  in  the  government,  most  of 
the  benefits  of  citizenship  are  enjoyed  by  every 
resident  of  our  country. 

Protection  from  foreign  enemies.  The  United 
States  defends  its  citizens  and  their  possessions  from 
foreign  enemies.      In  tliis  respect  it  does  not  differ 


The  PrivUeges  of  Ciiizcusluf) 


65 


from  oUkt  coiintrii's;  hul  in  iiiakiiif,^  il  cilecliNC,  llie 
United  Stales  has  been  successful  above  most  nations. 
We  should  not  cease  to  be  grateful  for  the  security 
which  we  enjoy. 

Protection  from  internal  disorder.  Our  coutdry 
also  preserves  peace  and  order  wilhiii  i(s  borders,  ll 
protects  our  lives  and  ])r()j)('ity  from  the  violence 
or  treachery  of  the  criminally  disposed  elements  in 
the  population.  Through  courts,  judges,  and  police 
and  military  forces  it  assures  that  safety  without 
which  there  can  be  no  real  lil^Tty. 

Protection  of  personal  liberty .  Our  country  not 
only  protects  us  against  other  people.  By  provisions 
of  the  Constitution  of  the  I  nited  States,  and  by 
similar  provisions  in  the  constitution  of  the  states,  it 
protects  the  individual  against  possible  tyranny  by 
government  itself.  This  is  what  makes  American 
freedom  so  secure  and  so  precious  to  us  all. 


da.n(;i:hs  to  navi(;\ti().\ 

(Reported  by  HyJrofjriipliir  Olliir) 

April  9— Lat.  10. 10  Ion.  16.  .■?:.  a  d.'nli.  t 
three-masted  schooner  on  lire  and  ahaiidoncd: 
crew  rescued. 

March  29— Lat.  16.22  Ion.  .30.1 1,  a  derelict 
about  100  feet  long  and  awash. 

April  9— Lat.  12.17  Ion.  19.29,  nn  icoberg 
■100  feel  long  and   l.'i  feet  high. 

A|)ril  10— Lat.  •ll.:52  Ion.  1«. 10,  in  between 
two  bergs  and  ten  growlers  in  a  line,  north 
and  south,  and  1  miles  distnnt  on  ea(  h  side  of 
the  ship. 


Fig.  33.  Such  information,  which  helps  to  prevent 
loss  of  life  and  property  at  sea,  is  regularly  supplied 
to  the  newspapers  of  sea[)ort  towns  by  the  hydro- 
graphic  ollice  of  the  Navy  Department. 


66 


Loyal  Citizenship 


The  first  ten  amendments  to  the  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  are  known  as  our  Bill  of  Rights. 
These  amendments  and  several  clauses  in  the  Con- 
stitution as  originally  ratified  specify  the  safeguards 
of  individual  liberty.  Some  of  these  are,  in  effect,  as 
follows : 

(a)  Freedom  of  speech,  press,  and  worship.  All 
citizens  are  assured  the  freedom  to  worship  God  in 
their  own  way,  to  speak  or  print  their  opinions,  and 
peaceably  to  meet  for  the  discussion  of  pubhc  ques- 
tions. Freedom  of  worship  is  an  inestimable  blessing 
which  a  century  ago  belonged  to  the  people  of  only  a 
few  countries.  Freedom  in  speaking  and  publishing 
are  necessary  to  real  government  by  the  people  of  a 
country  (Fig.  34). 


Fig.  34.    Free  speech  on  Boston  Common.  \Mthout  free  speech  there 
can  be  no  free  government. 


The  Privileges  of  (utizcnshijj  67 


WniT  OP  HABCAS  CORFUS- 


.^fcrieof  3llmm»,l  j^^  PEOPLE  OF  THE  STATE  OF  ILLfNOIS 

Peona  County      J 

TO. .. .Itaat  lA»n,  S^■•r^ff  of  IsorU  Countj.  llMnoU.  QREET/NQ 

Ymt  au  htrehy  commandAi  to  hai<  0\{  body  of VlUlMB  D*  McClucACO^ 

b?  you  impruoned  and  detained,  at  tt  ts  laid,  totether  uuK  the  Dnv  dnJ  comjc  o^  shc^  m^vuonnuTU  ami  dftmnon. 

by  uhatxri'eT  name  the  laid  UUlam  D.  MoCluCSCB^ 

ihaU  be  called  o'  cha'ceJ.  before  the  Ci'ruii  Coun  0/  uiiJ  Pnmj  Coun/7.  at  the  Conn  Houae  m  Ptona,  in  laid  Covnrj. 

..on..Iburaill7,.Jaiuiaii7  .AUlA^.D.  .1921,  «L  10^'claek.XJU 


immediauty  after  Ivint  ktvoI  uilfi  idu  wnt,  u  iw  doill  uy)nica)>dmt  to  law     And  kut  yon  then  and  there  thu 
thereon  oi  your  doinfi  m  the  ItrmiieiL^^ 

',  WITNESS. 

>*  Clerk  oi  taid  Circuit  Court,  and  the  Seal  thereof,  at  Peona,  tha 

day  of A.  D.  loa  ... 

B> „ Deprr, 

To  R«nry  T.-ljaiB^aar-Cotciier-, toilii»r 


Fig.  35.  A  writ  of  haboas  rorpus.  Exropt  for  such  a  writ,  a  person 
ronfined  in  an  asylum  or  jail  mif,'ht  be  held  indefinitely  without  just 
cause. 

(h)  Securify  of  properly.  \o  man  may  bo  arbi- 
trarily deprived  of  liis  property,  lie  abvays  has  a 
chance  to  defend  his  rifjhts  in  court.  Even  if  the 
government  takes  property  for  necessary  j)iiltHc 
purposes,  it  must  pay  what  the  property  is  worth 
as  determined  by  a  jury. 

(c)  Trial  by  jury.  One  accused  of  crime  is  ent  itled 
to  trial  by  a  jury  of  twelve  of  liis  fellow  citizens, 
chosen  by  lot. 

(d)  Habeas  corpus.  No  man  can  be  held  long  in 
prison  without  trial.  His  friends  can  secure  from  a 
judge  an  order  known  as  a  wrU  of  habeas  corpus 
which  obliges  his  jailer  to  produce  him  in  court.     If 


68  Loyal  Citizenship 

he  is  being  improperly  held,  the  judge  will  order  his 
release  (Fig.  35). 

(e)  Other  safeguards.  No  excessive  hail  may  be 
demanded  or  cruel  and  unusual  punisJiment  imposed. 
Even  officers  of  the  government  may  not  search 
one's  house  without  a  warrant. 

The  crowning  privilege  of  citizenship.  We  have 
enumerated  a  few  of  the  advantages  of  living  under 
the  flag  of  the  United  States,  which  are  extended  even 
to  foreign  residents.  We  have  yet  to  mention  the 
crowning  privilege  of  citizenship — a  privilege  which 
only  citizens  twenty-one  years  of  age  or  over  can 
exercise — the  right  to  vote.  The  fact  that  those  who 
make  and  carry  out  our  laws  hold  their  places  by  the 
will  of  the  people  assures  our  freedom.  The  idea  of 
the  importance  of  the  baUot  is  well  expressed  in  a 
stanza  by  John  Greenleaf  Wliittier: 

Not  Ughtly  faU 

Beyond  recall 
The  written  scrolls  a  breath  can  float; 

The  crowning  fact, 

The  kingliest  act, 
Of  Freedom  is  the  freeman's  vote. 

QUESTIONS 

What  is  the  announced  purpose  of  our  government?    Who  can  be 

citizens  of  the  United  States?     Why  do  we  take  the  privileges  of 

citizens  for  granted?    What  does  our  country  do  to  protect  us  from 

foreign  enemies?     from  internal  disorder?     How  are  we  protected 

against  governmental  tyranny?     What  limitations  may  there  be 

on  the  rights  of  public  assembly  and  freedom  of  speech  and  of  the 

press? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Naturalization  (see  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions  of  American 

Government,  pages  50,  104,  106,  297).    A  day's  record  of  the  police 


The  Privilnjes  of  ( Uliicnshifj  ()^) 

in  protetling  tlic  |)iil)lic,  as  sliowii  hy  llic  station  lilollcr.  Th*: 
Declaration  of  Indeix'ndfnc*';  the  Hill  of  Mif^lits  of  the  Constitution 
of  the  United  States;  the  l>il|  of  Mi;;hts  of  sour  state;  Magna 
Charta;    the  Knglish  Hill  of  Hi^dils  of  l(,m. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

I^t  dilTerent  nienilxTs  of  a  (-oniniittee  of  pupils  inter\  iew  a  lawyer, 
a  newspap<'r  rei)orter.  a  clergyman,  a  teacher,  and  a  l)nsin«'ss  man, 
and  ask:  "Should  anarchists  l)c  all<iwed  freedom  of  sjjooch  when 
they  preac'h  their  doctrine  in  public  places!'"  Compare  answers  in 
class;    discuss  and  debate. 


CHAPTER  NINE 

The  Duties  of  Citizenship 

Our  republic :  its  ruler  ship.  Democracy  is  a  word 
from  the  Greek  which  means  "the  people  rule."  We 
use  the  term  to  designate  a  government  such  as  our 
own,  in  which  laws  are  made  and  enforced  by  repre- 
sentatives chosen  by  the  people.  Every  native-born 
American  upon  reaching  the  age  of  twenty-one  is 
called  upon  to  take  a  direct  part  in  the  government 
of  the  country  and  whichever  of  its  subdivisions  he 
happens  to  reside  in.  So  is  every  naturalized  citizen. 
It  is  because  all  must  participate  in  the  government 
of  our  country  that  it  is  especially  important  for  each 
of  us  to  have  accurate  ideas  about  its  Constitution 
and  to  know  its  problems. 

Autocracies.  In  the  governments  of  Russia,  Ger- 
many, and  Austria,  as  organized  before  the  war,  the 
real  authority  rested  in  an  Emperor — the  autocrat 
— or  in  the  small  group  that  surrounded  and  often 
controlled  him.  While  elected  representatives  of  the 
people  had  some  share  in  the  government,  it  was 
a  very  small  one,  and  the  ordinary  citizen  was  ex- 
pected to  do  little  more  than  obey  the  orders  of  his 
superiors.  Even  in  Germany,  where  all  boys  and 
girls  went  to  school,  they  were  trained  rather  to 
serve  their  country  under  the  direction  of  others  than 
to  help  govern  it.  Such  countries  are  called  auto- 
cratic monarchies  or  merely  autocracies. 

Other  democracies.  There  are  several  great  de- 
mocracies besides  our  own.  These  include  France, 
Great  Britain,   and  Italy.     In  Great  Britain  and 

70 


The  Duties  of  ('i(i:enshlfp 


Fk;.  :U).    President    Hi  .  ■>  (lniirliT  for  ;i(lriii~       ■  ilie 

public  ^'olf  links  at  \\  iisliiiifitoii.  D.  C.  Our  Presiih-iit  i>.  iilt.  r  .ill. 
one  of  tilt'  people  and  must  submit  to  the  laws  and  repilations  wliii  li 
apply  to  other  citizens. 

Italy  the  head  of  the  government  is  a  kinj^,  who  i.s 
not  an  actual  ruler.  Sueh  goverinnents  are  called 
constiluliomil  or  liniiU'd  nionarchics.  lii  tliciii  lite 
real  power  lies  in  the  represenlalives  of  liie  jn'oplc,  and 
they  are  in  many  respects  as  democratic  as  is  (lie 
government  of  the  United  States,  IVaiuc.  likf  I  lie 
United  States,  has  at  the  head  of  its  government  an 
elected  officer,  the  President.  Such  governments 
are  calKnl  repuhlirs. 

Responsibility  of  the  individual  citizen.  Vah\\ 
American  citizen  should  have  a  .^ense  of  personal 
responsibihty  for  the  welfare  of  his  country,  lint 
too  often  he  feels  that  his  duties  are  shared  bs  so 
many  others  that  he  need  not  concern  himself  about 


72  Loyal  Citizenship 

them.  It  is  clear,  however,  that  if  every  one  said, 
"  I  do  not  need  to  fulfill  my  duty  as  a  citizen  because 
others  will,"  no  one  would  ever  fulfill  his  duty. 
The  duties  of  the  citizen  and  voter  are:  First,  to 
obey  the  law  and  the  lawful  commands  of  those  in 
authority;  second,  to  act  wisely  and  understandingly 
in  the  election  of  other  citizens  to  represent  him  in  the 
conduct  of  the  government;  and  third,  to  stand  ready 
to  defend  his  country  with  his  life  (Fig.  37). 

The  increasing  complexity  of  government.  There 
was  a  time  when  government  concerned  itself  about 
httle  more  than  furnishing  protection  against  foreign 
enemies  and  maintaining  peace  within  its  territories. 
The  needs  as  well  as  the  duties  of  the  citizen  were 
then  comparatively  simple.  But  as  civilization  has 
become  more  complex  the  individual  has  become 
more  and  more  dependent  on  government  for  ser- 
vices that  are  vital  to  him.  For  example,  take  the 
case  of  water.  If  you  live  in  the  country  and  have 
your  own  well,  you  can,  perhaps,  take  measures  that 
will  protect  you  against  impurities  in  the  water.  If, 
however,  water  comes  to  you  and  thousands  of  others 
tlirough  miles  of  pipe  from  a  source  you  never  saw, 
you  will  be  quite  unable  to  keep  your  water  supply 
free  from  contamination  or  to  determine  whether  or 
not  it  contains  germs  such  as  those  of  typhoid  fever. 
In  like  manner  you  will  be  unable  to  determine  the 
true  contents  of  the  bottle  of  milk  that  is  left  at  your 
door  each  morning,  or  of  the  can  of  goods  from  the 
grocer's.  To  protect  you  in  such  matters,  inspectors 
are  employed  by  the  government.    Tlie  wider  its  ser- 


The  Duties  of  (Utizenship 


Mtirt}jHth.titn  }fit.frur. 


Fig.  37.   The  snproiiio  sorvico  of  loyiil  cili/crisliip.    "('.;irr\  On,  "  a 
cdebraU'd  |K)sler  by  Edwin  Hlnshfit-ld. 


vices,  the  more  hiffhJy  govcrnmenl  niusi  be  orqauized 
and  the  more  intelligently  it  needs  to  be  nuuHujed.  T\w 
citizen  must  keep  himself  \\e\\  informed  in  order  tliat 
he  may  do  his  duty  as  a  volcr. 


74  Loyal  Citizenship 


You  are  now  entering  the  Palisades  Interstate  Park.  It  is  a 
Public  Park,  extending  at  this  point  from  the  river's  edge  to 
the  top  of  the  cliffs  in  a  northerly  and  southerly  direction  for  a 
distance  of  twelve  and  a  half  miles. 

The  trees  and  shrubbery  in  Ihis  Park  are  of  priceless  value  to  the 
public.  They  must  be  preserved.  We  ask  you  to  refrain  from 
picking  autumn  leaves  or  branches.  We  know  how  much  you 
enjoy  them  but  if  you  pick  them  today,  you  will  deprive  others 
of  the  pleasure  of  "seeing  them  tomorrow  and  you  will  disfigure 
the  Park. 

Will  you  please  follow  these  suggestions  as  to  your  own 
action  and  where  you  see  others  picking  leaves  or  breaking 
branches  be  good  enough  to  use  your  influence  in  persuading 
them  not  to  do  so? 

Your  cooperation  will  be  appreciated. 


Fig.  38.    An  effective  printed  appeal  to  the  cooperative  spirit  of 
visitors  to  a  great  park.   No  loyal  citizen  would  disregard  it. 

Loyalty.  We  can  sum  up  all  of  the  citizen's  duties 
in  the  one  word  loyalty.  If  you  want  a  reason  for 
being  loyal,  you  can  find  one  in  this  fact:  that  your 
country  can  give  you  opportunities  for  freedom  and 
cooperation  only  tlirough  good  government,  which 
depends  upon  the  loyalty  of  citizens.  //  is  to  your 
interest  to  be  loyal.  It  is  also  to  the  interest  of  your 
fellow  citizens  that  you,  as  well  as  they,  should  be 
loyal,  in  order  to  secure  for  all  the  benefits  of  a  well- 
governed  country;  but  after  all,  loyalty  to  one's 
country  is  something  more  than  loyalty  to  one's  own 
interests,  or  even  to  the  interests  of  his  fellow  citi- 
zens. Your  country's  ideals  and  the  blood  that  has 
been  shed  to  achieve  them  have  given  it  a  personality 
which  is  worthy  of  the  deepest  devotion. 

QUESTIONS 

WTiat  is  democracy.'^  What  is  an  autocracy?  Give  examples. 
What  is  a  limited  monarchy?    Give  examples.    What  is  a  republic? 


The  Duties  of  Citizenship  75 

Name  ten  inipurtunl  republics.  W  Iml  ;ire  three  extremely  im[Kjr- 
tant  duties  of  citizenship?  Give  as  many  examples  as  you  can  of  the 
services  rendered  by  government.  What  reasons  can  you  give 
for  being  loyal? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 
This  is  a  good  place  to  begin  the  study  of  comparative  government 
by  a.ssigning  as  topics  for  report  the  governments  of  countries  men- 
tioned in  the  text.  Comparisons  miglit  well  be  made  between  the 
governments  of  France  and  the  United  States  and  of  France  and 
Great  Britain.  Some  possible  sources  of  information  are  Wilson, 
WooDROw,  The  Slate  (Revised  Edition,  1918);  Ogg,  F.  A.,  The 
Governmenis  of  Europe;  S.\it,  E.  M..  Government  and  Politics  of 
France;  KrIjger,  F.  K.,  Government  and  Politics  of  the  German 
Empire  (old  system);  Brooks,  R.  C,  Government  and  Politics  of 
Switzerland;  Doud,  W.  E.,  Modern  Conslilutiuns  (contains  the  con- 
stitutions of  all  the  principal  countries  of  the  world  down  to  1909). 
Any  good  encyclopedia  will  be  very  useful,  as  will  files  of  Review  of 
Reviews,  Literary  Digest,  and  Curreid  History. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Have  a  loyalty  hour,  with  a  patriotic  program  by  the  class. 
Include  the  reading  of  a  portion  of  the  Declaration  of  Independence, 
and  let  several  examples  of  loyalty  to  home,  school,  or  country  be 
reported  by  members  of  the  class.  One  of  the  best  exaniples — of 
devotion  to  humanity — was  the  act  of  several  members  of  the 
United  States  Public  Health  Service  who  allowed  themselves  to  be 
bitten  by  Stegomyia  mosquitoes  in  order  to  determine  whether  or 
not  they  were  the  carriers  of  yellow  fever.  Dr.  Jesse  Lazear  died  as 
a  result  of  this  experiment. 


CHAPTER  TEN 
Elections 

The  ballot  box.  The  central  device  in  our  repub- 
lic consists  of  a  very  large  number  of  boxes  of  many 
shapes  and  sizes,  in  which  our  citizens  place  their 
ballots  at  election  time.  Our  government  can  never 
be  any  better  than  the  votes  recorded  on  the  ballots 
which  go  into  these  boxes;  its  wisdom  cannot  be 
greater  than  the  wisdom  of  its  citizens  as  expressed 
at  the  polls.  Our  representatives  can  never  be  any 
better  than  we,  the  people,  choose  them  to  be.  Since 
government  in  the  United  States  is  carried  on  almost 
altogether  by  representatives,  our  chief  business  as 
citizens  is  to  select  them. 

Who  may  vote.  In  order  to  vote  at  a  national 
election,  one  must  be  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
at  least  twenty-one  years  of  age.  In  some  states  the 
voter  must  pass  a  very  simple  educational  test;    in 


Fig.  39.   The  ballot  box — a  symbol  of  the  rule  of  the  people. 
76 


Elections 


77 


Fig.  40.    An  rlprtinn  scene.  Secret  votinp;  represents  a  pre<it  advance 
over  the  ancient  iiietliod  of  election  by  the  shouts  of  the  people. 

others  the  payment  of  a  poll  tax  is  required.  It  is 
also  generally  necessary  to  have  registered  one's  name 
as  a  voter  at  some  time  preceding  the  election,  and  to 
have  resided  thirty  days  in  the  precinct,  from  three 
to  six  months  in  the  county,  and  a  year  in  the  state. 
Polling  places  and  election  officers.  There  must 
be  a  polling  place  for  every  few  hundred  voters,  and 
for  this  purpose  the  connnunily  is  divided  into 
election  districts  or  precincts.  For  each  polling  place 
there  is  an  election  board,  consisting  usually  of  from 
three  to  six  persons,  appointed  by  the  county  clerk 
or  other  officer.  It  is  the  duty  of  the  board  to  see 
that  only  properly  registered  persons  vole;  Ihal  the 
secrecy  of  the  ballot  is  preserved;    and,  NshtMi  tlie 


78  Loyal  Citizenship 


To  vote  for  a  Person,  mark  a  Cross  X  in  the  Square  at  w 
the  right  of  the  Party  Name,  or  Political  Pesigrnation.  xV 


GOVERNOR Vote   for   ONE 


CHANNING  H.  COX-oF  boston--- -■--— '--^^--^ReDiibllcan 


WALTER  8.  HUTCHINS-OF  Greenfield^— ------•-'■-----^Socialist 


PATRICK  MULLIGAN-OF  BOSTON----------- — —^Socialist  Labor 


JOHN  J.  WAL8H-0F  boston— ——— —————— Democratic 


LIEUTENANT  GOVERNOR Vote  for  ONE 


MARCUS  A.  COOLIDGE-oF  fitchburs  ^w^w^.^^xv.^^^Democratlc 


DAVID  CRAIG-of  hiiford-—-——-^——^—— Socialist  Labor 


ALVAN  T.  FULLER-OFKALOEN— — — — -—^Republican 


THOMAS  NICHOLSON-OF  hethuen——-^—--— Socialist 


ROBERT  M.  WASHBURNhjfboston————— —Independent 


SECRETARY Vote  for  ONE 


FREDERIC  W.  COOK-OF  soherviue--—^^———— Republican 


EDWARD  E.  GINSBURG-oFBROOKiiNE— — ^^— ^^Democratic 


ANTHONY  HOUTENBaiNK-oF  boston--— ——Socialist  Labor 


EDITH  M.  WILLIAMS-OF  brookline-- — -Socialist 


Fig.  41.    Section  of  a  Massachusetts  ballot.    The  same  arrangement 
of  candidates'  names  is  used  for  every  office  to  be  filled. 


Kleciions  70 

election  is  over,  to  count  tho  votes.  You  can  readily 
see  thai  this  duty  is  an  important  one.  Tiie  nienihers 
of  the  board  are  usually  paid  for  tlicir  work. 

The  ballot.  We  vote  at  elections  by  means  of 
ballots  which  are  printed  and  supplied  at  the  voting 
places  by  the  state,  county,  city,  or  other  division 
for  which  the  election  is  held.  The  voter  on  receiving 
his  ballot  takes  it  into  a  separate,  curtained  booth, 
where  he  marks  it.  He  then  folds  it  in  such  a  way 
that  the  markings  cannot  be  seen,  and  hands  it  to  an 
election  officer.  The  officer,  without  unfolding  the 
ballot,  deposits  it  in  the  ballot  box.  Since  the  voting 
is  secret,  every  one  can  feel  free  to  vote  as  he  pleases 
without  fear  of  any  other  person's  criticism  (Fig.  40). 

The  form  of  ballot  differs  very  much  from  state  to 
state.  In  Massachusetts  the  names  of  the  candi- 
dates are  arranged  alphabetically  under  the  titles  of 
the  respective  offices  for  which  they  are  running.  A 
voter  nmst  put  a  cross  opposite  the  name  of  each 
candidate  for  whom  he  w  -shes  to  vote.  This  form  of 
ballot  has  been  adopted  very  widely  throughout  the 
country.  Tn  some  other  states  what  is  known  as  the 
party-cotunm  ballot  is  used.  In  this  form  of  ballot  the 
names  of  the  candidates  of  each  parly  for  the  various 
offices  are  arranged  in  a  column  under  the  name  of 
that  party.  Where  the  party-column  ballot  is  used, 
a  person  can  sometimes  vote  the  whole  of  a  colunm 
by  marking  a  cross  in  a  circle  at  I  he  lop.  The  Massa- 
chusetts ballot  is  much  belter,  because  il  makes  it  as 
easy  to  vote  a  "split  ticket"  as  a  "straight  ticket"; 
that  is,  as  easy  to  mark  the  l)all<)l  il"  one  chooses  to 


80  Loyal  Citizenship 

vote  for  men  from  different  parlies  as  to  mark  the 
ballot  if  one  chooses  to  vote  only  for  the  candidates 
from  one  party.  This  encourages  independent  voting 
— makes  the  voter  less  subservient  to  party.  In 
many  places,  city-election  ballots  contain  no  party 
names  whatever;  and  this  is  hkewise  true  for  some 
county,  judicial,  and  State  offices. 

Voting  machines.  In  some  places  voting  machines 
are  used.  These  are  ingenious  devices  inclosed  in 
steel  cabinets.  On  the  front  of  each  machine  the 
candidates'  names  are  arranged  as  on  a  paper  ballot. 
For  each  name  there  is  a  lever.  The  voter  pulls  the 
levers  for  the  candidates  that  he  wishes  to  have 
elected.  The  device  works  like  an  adding  machine, 
recording  and  totaling  the  vote.  On  another  type  of 
voting  machine  the  voter  merely  sets  pointers  beside 
the  name  that  he  selects.  As  he  passes  out  of  the 
booth  through  a  turnstile,  his  vote  is  automatically 
recorded. 

Counting  the  vote.  The  polls  are  open  from  morn- 
ing to  evening,  usually  about  twelve  hours  in  all. 
After  they  are  closed,  the  board  begins  to  count  the 
ballots.  Persons  interested  are  allowed  to  watch  the 
count.  The  difficulty  of  counting  depends  on  the 
number  of  candidates  and  propositions  on  the  ballot. 
Sometimes  it  takes  days  to  complete  the  count. 

Honesty  of  elections.  Generally  speaking,  elec- 
tions are  fairly  conducted  and  the  vote  is  counted 
honestly.  The  law  provides  very  severe  penalties  for 
bribery — buying  votes;  intimidation — trying  to  scare 
voters  in  an  effort  to  influence  them;   personation— 


Elections 


.IU.IAU   U    ULTON 


HAJtVEY  C   5WITH 


SINGLE  TAX  TICKET 


JUStPM  T    TRACir 


RtlXtLfH  W  ARCMLR 


i.tuHC£  EUWA 


Fig.  42.  A  good  example  of  a  party-column  ballot.  Note  the  circle 
at  the  top  of  each  column;  also  the  party  emblems  for  the  guidance  of 
illiterate  electors.  By  putting  a  cross  in  one  of  the  circles,  the  elector 
votes  for  the  whole  list  of  the  party  indicated.  But  he  may  "scratch 
the  ballot" — vote  separately  for  men  of  different  parties. 


voting  under  some  other  person's  name;  and  for 
betrayal  of  the  secrecy  of  the  ballot  by  election  officers. 
There  are  statutes  also  that  lunit  the  amount  of 
money  that  candidates  may  spend  in  campaigning  for 
election,  and  requiring  that  publicity  be  given  to 
their  expenditures.  Such  provisions  help  to  assure 
the  honesty  of  elections;  but  the  loyal  citizen  must  be 
vigilant  in  order  to  make  them  effective. 

QUESTIONS 

Why  is  the  use  of  the  ballot  box  the  central  fact  in  American 
democracy.^  Who  may  vote.^  What  is  registration.^  What  are  the 
duties  of  election  oflicers?     What  is  the  ad\antage  of  the  Massa- 


82  Loyal  Citizenship 

chusetts  ballot?    What  other  forms  of  ballot  are  there?    Are  elec- 
tions honestly  conducted? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 
Qualifications  for  voting  in  your  state.  The  appointment,  pay, 
and  duties  of  election  officers.  The  laws  of  your  state  for  assuring 
the  honesty  of  elections.  Election  laws  are  printed  in  pamphlet 
form  in  most  states  and  can  usually  be  obtained  from  the  secretary 
of  state  at  the  state  capitol.  See  Ray,  P.  O.,  Introduction  to  Political 
Parlies  and  Practical  Politics;  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions  of 
American  Government,  Chapter  12. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Elect  officers  for  your  class  organization  by  ballot,  following  as 
closely  as  may  be  the  practice  in  elections  of  public  officers.  Make 
use  of  the  ballot  also  to  decide  other  nsatters  as  they  arise. 

Elections  occur  very  frequently.  Let  the  class  take  advantage 
of  the  first  one  that  offers,  in  order  to  learn  at  first  hand  as  much  as 
possible  about  it.    Use  the  sample  ballots  and  visit  the  polls. 


CII\ini:i^   KLKXKN 

POLITICM.   IVXMTIES 

What  political  parties  are.  On  tlio  hallol  iisod  in 
most  t'lcclions  liic  i)arly  ol'  cacii  canciidali'  is  dearly 
indicated,  as  Republican,  Democratic,  Socialist,  or 
other.  In  (lieon,  a  parly  is  a  group  of  citizens  organ- 
ized for  the  jmrpose  of  making  cffecHre  their  common 
vieivs  as  to  how  the  government  should  ()e  run.  I  nfor- 
lunately,  parties  sometimes  become  nothing  more 
than  the  means  for  getting  one  clique  or  another 
elected  to  office.  Powerful  "bosses"  use  them  to 
further  tlieir  own  ends  in  public  affairs.  The  party 
organization  sometimes  becomes  a  mere  "machine" 
which  tlie  boss  manipulates. 

Parties  help  to  express  the  will  of  the  people. 
\Yithout  parties  it  would  be  practically  impossible 
for  our  citizens  to  express  their  will.  Suppose  that  in 
your  state  there  were  no  political  parties  and  that 
each  voter  were  to  cast  his  ballot  for  the  man  whom, 
of  all  men  in  the  state,  he  considered  best  fitted  to  be 
governor.  There  would,  of  course,  be  a  very  large 
number  of  persons  voted  for.  If  one  of  these  received 
a  plurality, — that  is,  more  votes  than  any   other 


X  Y  M  N 
Fig.  1.'}.  A  plurality  and  a  majority.  "  \  "  has  a  plurality,  tlunifih  ho 
has  received  hut  a  siiiall  fraction  of  all  the  votes  cast.  "^  "  has  a 
majority — more  than  half  of  all  the  votes  cast. 

83 


84  Loyal  Citizenship 

candidate, — his  vote  would  probably  be  a  very  small 
part  of  the  total  vote  cast.  The  great  majority  might 
have  preferred  almost  anybody  to  him.  He  could 
not  really  claim  to  represent  the  people,  and  it  would 
not  be  at  all  surprising  if  his  views  and  policy  were 
just  what  they  did  not  care  for.  [This  illustration  is 
drawn  from  The  Citizen  s  Part  in  Government,  by 
Ehhu  Root.] 

Now  let  us  suppose  that  at  the  next  election  men 
interested  in  some  particular  business  or  in  some 
particular  theory  of  government  should  say  to  one 
another,  "Let  us  get  together  and  vote  for  one  can- 
didate for  governor."  Undoubtedly  the  candidate  of 
this  group  or  of  some  other  similar  group  would  be 
elected.  The  value  of  getting  together  in  advance  of 
the  election  would  be  clearly  shown.  Henceforth, 
groups  of  voters  would  unite  for  the  purpose  of  get- 
ting the  action  that  each  group  considered  most 
important.  For  this  purpose  they  would  be  willing 
to  forget  about  the  less  important  matters  on  which 
they  differed. 

The  two-party  system.  The  process  of  bringing 
voters  together  has  gone  on  in  Great  Britain,  her 
colonies,  and  the  United  States,  until  we  ordinarily 
have  two  groups  or  parties  that  contend  for  suprem- 
acy. There  are  minor  parties,  but  usually  only  two 
great  parties.  This  is  really  very  fortunate,  because 
the  candidate  of  one  or  the  other  of  the  great  parties 
is  sure  to  be  chosen.  His  views  are  likely  to  represent 
those  of  a  majority  of  his  fellow  citizens.  (In  1912 
there  were  three  parties  that  polled  very  large  votes  in 


Political  l^urlies  8.') 

the  contest  for  tlic  ptcsidciicN .  I  liis  was  dm'  to  a 
split  in  the  Republican  ])arl\.  I  he  so-called  Pro- 
gressive party,  however,  was  short  lived.) 

In  some  countries  there  are  many  political  parlies, 
of  shifting  strength,  each  of  which  manages  to  elect 
its  special  group  of  representatives.  In  order  to  gel 
any  laws  of  importance  passed,  the  many  lit  lie  groups 
must  be  brought  together.  'I'lien  each  lillle  group 
"demands  its  pound  of  flesh" — some  promise  of 
special  favor.  The  result  often  is  that  some  good 
laws  are  not  passed  though  many  people  want  them, 
while  other  laws  are  passed  that  few  })eople  want. 
It  is  only  ttirough  great  political  parlies  llml  rcry  large 
mwibers  of  people  can  make  up  Iheir  minds  as  to  the 
political  policies  that  they  want  to  have  put  into 
effect  and  as  to  whom  they  w  ish  to  elect. 

Our  duty  toward  parties.  Since  j)olitical  parties 
are  necessary  under  our  system  of  government,  it  is 
only  right  that  every  cilizen  sfiould  participate  in  party 
activities.  To  say,  "Parties  are  bad,  so  I'll  have 
nothing  to  do  with  them,"  is  merely  to  hand  over  to 
others  one's  share  in  the  control  of  party  machinery. 
Party  power  may  the  easier,  then,  fall  into  the  hands 
of  evil  people  who  will  make  the  worst  possible  use 
of  it.  It  is  not  good  sportsmanshij)  to  sit  on  the  side 
lines  at  a  football  game  and  "knock"  the  })layers. 
It  is  not  good  citizenship  to  neglect  duty ;  and  a  voter 
cannot  make  up  for  such  neglect  by  criticism,  no 
matter  how  just,  of  those  who  take  advantage  of  his 
fault  (Fig.  44). 

The  dangers  of  hidebound  partisanship.     There 


86 


Loyal  Citizenship 


was  once  a  half  back  on  a  Harvard  football  team, 
great  in  every  other  respect,  who  had  one  serious 


New  York  Times 

Fig.  44.  The  well-being  of  each  party  depends  upon  the  individual 
citizen's  performance  of  his  duties  as  a  voter.  In  this  cartoon  by 
Mr.  Edwin  Marcus,  the  two  great  pohtical  parties  are  represented  as 
distressed  at  the  indifference  of  the  voter. 

fault.  He  unconsciously  always  glanced  toward  the 
point  in  the  hne  at  which  a  coming  play  was  to  be 
directed.  Some  Yale  men  detected  this  habit  and  in 
the  "big  game"  with  Yale  every  play  in  which  this 
half  back  participated  was  blocked.  He  gave  him- 
self and  his  team  away  without  knowing  it.  In  a  very 
similar  way,  a  person  who  can  be  counted  on  to  vote 
his  party  ticket  from  top  to  bottom,  no  matter  who  is 
on  the  ticket  or  what  the  party  stands  for,  may  put 
himself  in  the  power  of  those  who  hinder  the  public 


PoUtiral  rarlics  »7 

welfare,  The  bosses  who  seek  to  eoiilrol  parly  allairs 
know  just  where  he  is  goiiifj  witli  his  vole,  and  they 
make  their  phuis  aeeordinj^My,  A  party,  ol  course,  is 
only  a  means  for  j)ulliiij,'  into  rffeet  those  jjolilical 
opinions  tliat  we  are  rnosl  eoneerned  about;  and  in 
order  to  have  a  party  at  all  we  must  give  up  some  of 
our  opinions.  Bui  a  man  ivho  surrenders  all  of  his 
principles  to  a  parly  makes  himself  an  obslacle  lo  good 
government.  The  independent  voter  who  usually  acts 
with  a  party,  but  who  may  split  willi  it  if  it  ceases 
altogether  to  rej)resent  his  views,  easts  a  l»allot  that 
has  much  more  significance  than  the  ballot  of  a  man 
of  no  party  or  a  hidebound  partisan. 

National  parties  and  local  elections.  \\  here  can- 
didates are  nominated  i)y  the  national  parties  for  city 
and  county  offices,  many  members  of  each  party  are 
likely  to  vote  for  party  candidates  without  regard  to 
their  fitness  for  the  local  positions.  This  brings 
unworthy  men  into  local  offices  and  enables  bosses  to 
use  those  offices  in  building  up  a  personal  organiza- 
tion or  machine. 

It  should  be  perfectly  clear  that  the  issues  of 
national  politics  are  not  the  same  as  those  of  local 
politics.  The  foreign  policy  of  the  United  States, 
the  army  and  navy,  and  the  regulation  of  interstate 
conmierce  present  very  different  problems  from  those 
relating  to  the  prevention  of  fires,  the  paving  of 
streets,  and  the  digging  of  sewers.  Men  may  agree 
on  one  set  of  problems  and  differ  violently  on  the 
other,  and  no  good  purpose  is  served  by  allowing  na- 
tional-parly politics  to  confuse  local  issues.    Happily, 


88 


Loyal  Citizenship 


CITY  OF  LAWRENCE. 

List  of  Candidates  to  be  voted  for  at  Municipal  Election, 
December  14th,  1920. 

SPECIMEN  BALLOT 

Penalty  for  WUfoUy  Defacing.  Tearing  Down.  Removing  or  DefitroyinR  a  List  of  Can- 
didates or  a  Specimen  Ballots— Fine  Not  Exceeding  One  Hundred  Dollars. 


/^ 


^^, 


To  Vote  for  a  Person  Mark  a  Cross  X  i"  'he  Square  at  the  L 
Right  of  Name.                                        U 

To  Vote  for  a  Person  Mark  a  Cross  X  ">  ""e  Square  at  the 
Right  of  Name 

FOE  ALDERMAN  TO  BE  DIRECTOR  OF  DEPARTMENT  ''. 
OF  PUBLIC  PROPERTY.    (Two  Year  Term)                          i, 
VOTE  FOR  ONE 

FOR  SCHOOL  COMMITTEE     (Two  Year  Term) 

VOTE  FOR  TWO 

THOMAS  F.  GREENE,  > 

JOHN  A.  FLANAGAN,  6s.„»..t„  |        [; 

DANIEL  H.  KELLEHER,  ,=.^s, 

MICHAEL  F.  SC ANLON, «,  ..^  s,  |        1 

DANIEL  F.  MALONEY,.A.w.s, 

1    ; 

WALTER  T.  ROCHEFORT. 

i. 

To  Vote  On  the  Following  IJnestions  Mark  a  Cross  X  u"  ""e 
Square  at  the  Rigbl  of  "Yes'    or  "No  ' 

FOR  ALDERMAN  TO  BE  DIRECTOR  OF  DEPARTMBHT   , 
OF  PUBLIC  HEALTH  AND  CHARITIES                               s 
(Two  Year  Term)                                          VOTE  FOR  ONE  i. 

"Shall  licenses  be  granted  for  the 
sale  of  ceruin  non-intoxjcatiug  bever 
ages  in  this  city?" 

Yes 

No 

EDWARD  C.  CALLAHAN,' ; r 

WILLIAM  H.D.VOSE,  o,p„u,s, 

1 

••Shall  Licenses  be  Granted  for  the 
Sale  of  Intoxicating  Liquors  in  this 
',    City?" 

Yes 

No 

1 

\          Shall  Chapter  240.  Acts  of  1920, 

;      entitled.  "An  Act  To  Permit.  Under 

Public  Regulation  and  Control,  Cer- 

tain  Sports  and  Games  on  The  Lord's 

Day."  be  accepted? 

Yes 

No 

1 

* »       '            ■-                                                                            "^             Shall  Chapter  619.  Acts  of  ISBO,  en- 
3*  *    '       -                                                                                               tilled.  -Aji  Act  to  EstabUsh  a  State 

Yes 

1;                                                                                             \         " ~ ^"""'"^' 

Department  of  PubUc  Safety,"  be  ac- 
cepted? 

No 

Fig.  45.    Section  of  a  non-partisan  Ijallot.   To  vote  on  such  a  ballot, 
the  elector  must  find  out  beforehand  something  about  the  candidates. 


non-partisan  nominations  and  elections,  in  which  the 
party  of  the  candidate  is  not  shown  on  the  ballot,  are 
becoming  more  and  more  common  in  local  govern- 
ment (Fig.  45). 


Polilical  rurlii's  89 

QUESTIONS 

Name  as  many  as  yon  can  of  IIh*  |H)lili(-al  parlies  lliat  have  rxistcd 
in  tliis  country.  \N  liat  is  a  {>oliti(al  party?  What  is  a  |x>liti('al 
machine?  \Miat  is  a  |)arly  boss?  Why  are  parties  necessary?  How 
many  f,'reat  parlies  are  there  in  the  I 'nitetl  Slates?  Why  is  that  a 
good  tiling?  What  is  the  proper  allilude  of  a  g<K)d  citizen  toward 
parlies?  What  is  meant  hy  "hidelK)nnd  partisanship"?  What  is 
the  result  of  interference  hy  national  partii-s  in  local  affairs? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  history  of  any  of  the  American  parties,  whcilier  or  not  slill 
existing;  English  parties;  French  parties.  Methods  of  party 
organization;  camjjaign  methods;  corrupt-practices  acts,  espe- 
cially those  of  the  United  States  and  your  own  state.  A  few  sug- 
gested references  are  Ray,  P.  ().,  InlruilucUon  to  Polilical  Parlies 
and  Praclical  Polilics;  Johnston,  Alexander,  American  Polilics; 
Jones,  C.  L.,  Readings  on  Parlies  and  Elcclions;  Foiu),  II.  J.,  The 
Rise  and  Grouih  of  American  Polilics;  Bhyce,  Jame.s.  The  American 
Commonireallh;  Lowell,  A.  L.,  The  Corernmenl  of  England  (on 
English  parties);  Sait.  E.  M.,  Governmenl  and  Polilics  of  France. 
See  also  Reed,  T.  II.,  Form  and  Funclions  of  American  (iorerrmienl, 
in  which  Chapters  .'5,  6,  and  8  contain  extensive  lists  of  references. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Study  the  platforms  of  the  .several  parties  in  the  last  national  ehv- 
tion  ana  recent  state  or  local  platforms,  if  ohtainahle.  Such  study 
will  he  helpful  in  leading  up  to  the  drafting  of  a  local  platform  or 
program  hy  the  organized  class.  The  j>lalform  may  he  very  hrief 
and  simple,  huf  it  should  coxcr  the  principal  points  of  community 
betterment  which  will  form  the  siibjeit  of  the  lessons  in  Part  .'5. 


CHAPTER  TWELVE 
Nominations 

Caucuses  and  conventions.  At  an  election  the 
voter  is  practically  obliged  to  make  his  choice  be- 
tween the  candidates  whose  names  appear  on  the 
ballot.  He  may,  it  is  true,  write  in  any  other  name 
in  a  blank  space  provided  for  that  purpose;  but  it  is 
almost  impossible  to  elect  any  one  by  this  means.  It 
is  of  the  utmost  importance,  therefore,  that  we  con- 
sider houj  the  names  of  candidates  get  on  the  ballot. 

A  few  years  ago  all  parties  nominated  their  candi- 
dates by  what  is  usually  called  the  convention  system. 
The  voters  of  each  party  met  in  ward  or  town  or 
precinct  caucuses  or  primaries  and  elected  delegates 
to  city,  county,  or  congressional  district  conventions. 
These  caucuses  and  conventions  nominated  candi- 
dates for  city  and  county  offices,  for  the  state  legis- 
lature, and  even  for  the  national  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. The  county  or  the  congressional-district 
conventions  elected  delegates  to  a  state  convention, 
and  the  state  convention  did  the  same  for  the  na- 
tional convention.  [Two  delegates  to  Republican 
conventions  were  elected  by  each  congressional-dis- 
trict convention.]  This  method  of  nomination  still 
prevails  in  several  states  (Fig.  46). 

The  direct  primary.  In  a  majority  of  the  states 
the  convention  system  has  been  abandoned,  and  the 
direct-primary  system  has  been  substituted.  Conven- 
tions failed  really  to  represent  the  voters  of  each 
party  because  the  caucuses  were  poorly  attended  and 
unfairly  conducted.    The  direct  primary  works  like 

90 


Nontinalioiis 


91 


g> 


r..;^ 


92  Loyal  Citizenship 

this:  A  substantial  citizen,  John  Jones,  desires  to 
become  democratic  candidate  for  governor.  He  must 
first  secure  the  signatures  of  a  specified  number  of 
Democrats  (usually  a  small  per  cent  of  the  party's 
vote  for  governor  at  the  last  election)  to  a  petition 
proposing  him  for  nomination.  He  files  this  petition 
with  the  secretary  of  state  a  fixed  length  of  time 
before  the  primary.  His  rivals  within  the  Democratic 
party  must  follow  the  same  procedure,  and  so  must 
those  desiring  the  Republican  or  other  nomination, 
each,  of  course,  securing  signatures  of  men  of  his  own 
party.  The  ballots  are  then  prepared  for  the  pri- 
mary of  each  party.  Jones  thereafter  carries  on  a 
campaign  among  his  fellow  Democrats  to  secure 
their  votes  (Fig.  47). 

The  primaries  of  all  parties  are  generally  held  on 
the  same  day.  As  each  voter  presents  himself  at  the 
polling  place,  he  is  given  the  primary  ballot  of  his 
party.  In  some  states  he  must,  when  registering, 
have  declared  his  party  preference,  if  he  is  to  be 
regarded  as  a  member  of  that  party  at  the  primary. 
In  others  he  may  declare  his  party  at  the  primary 
polls.  The  primary  is  conducted  almost  exactly  like  an 
election,  and  the  same  provisions  against  dishonesty 
are  in  force.  The  ballots  of  each  party  are  put  in  a 
separate  box  and  are  counted  separately.  If  John 
Jones  has  more  votes  tliroughout  the  state  than  any 
other  Democratic  aspirant  for  governor,  his  name  is 
placed  on  the  ballot  at  the  state  election  as  that 
party's  candidate. 

If  you  ask  Mr.  Jones  what  has  particularly  im- 


Nominations 


93 


OFFICIAL  BALLOT  FOR  THH 

PRIMARY  LLECTION  OF  THt 

REPUBLICAN  PARTY. 

WESTCHESTER  COUNTY, 

SEPTEMBER   14.  1920 


SECOND  ASSEMBLY  DISTRICT 

TOWN  OF 

BEFORD 

FIRST  ELECTION  DISTRICT 


CAJIDIDATES  FOR  NOKUIATIOII  FOR  FUBUC  OFFICE 

CAmOATES  FOR  lOMHATIOI  FOR  mUC  OFFICE 

GOVERNOR 

CVou  Icr  00«) 

/DST1CE  O^THEJirnEia  conxT 

1 

■ATHAJI  L  HILLEB 

J9 

20 

J09EFH  HORKHADm 

1 

2 

OEOROE  F.  THOMPSOII 

ISAAC  >  uau 

2! 

UEDTEHAHT-OOVERJiOR 

(VM,  tor  osi) 

B 

4 

WILLIAM  IL  BEKNETT                                  I 

a 

lErUIEITATITE  Dl  COIOREM 
IVot«ror  oul 

SECRETART  OF  STATE                   1 
ivcitloronel                               | 

J^ 

IAMI8  W.  HURZD 

s 

■ 

1 

6 

ROBERT  R.  UWSOH 

nATZ  SDATOR 
(Vou  for  OBtt 

d- 

OEOROE  T.  RVRLDIO 

COHFT&OLLER                           1 

7 

JAMES  A.  WENDELL 

MEMBER  OF  ASSEMBLY 
IVot.  foros.1 

n 

WALTER  WORTH 

■^- 

WALTER  W.  WESTAU 

■ 

Fig.  47.  A  direct-priiiuiry  ballot.  On  this  ballot  l^cpiiMic  an  voters 
expressed  their  choice  of  the  persons  to  hecome  caiKJidatcs  of  their 
party.  Note  the  .similarity  to  the  Massachusetts  linal-eleclioii  l)allot 
(Fig.  II).  Note  also  that  for  each  of  several  offices  there  was  only  one 
candidate. 

pressed  him  in  his  campaign  for  llic  nomination,  he 
will,  if  he  is  quite  frank,  speak  of  the  hard  work  and 
the  expense  of  it.  This  indicates  the  weakness  of  the 
direct  primai^,  at  least  for  slate  offices;  the  expense 
of  a  campaign  makes  it  very  difficult  for  a  poor  man 
to  be  nominated. 

Importance  of  the  primary.  \o  ])riiiiarA  system 
furnishes  any  guarantee  tliat  noiiiiiialions  will  be 
wisely  or  even  honestly  made.  There  is  a  great 
tendency  on  the  part  of  the  tliouglitless  citizen  to 
forget  all  about  the  primary.  He  will  go  shooting, 
fishing,  on  a  business  trip,  or,  as  is  even  more  com- 


94  Loyal  Citizenship 

mon,  just  go  about  his  ordinary  work  or  play  and 
neglect  the  primary.  The  result  is  that  incompetent, 
unrepresentative,  or  even  corrupt  men  receive  nom- 
inations. Of  course,  as  is  often  the  case,  if  no  good 
candidates  have  sought  to  have  their  names  placed 
on  the  primary  ballots,  the  case  is  hopeless  anyway. 
If  there  is  indifference  about  voting  at  primaries, 
there  is  far  more  indifference  about  getting  good 
candidates  to  run  for  nomination  at  the  primaries.  An 
active  citizen's  duty  requires  his  interest  in  both 
these  matters.  He  ought  even  to  be  willing  to  be- 
come a  candidate  himself,  if  necessary.  The  final 
election  is  only  the  third  line  of  defense.  The  first  and 
second  line  trenches  are  the  petition  and  primary 
election  stages.  It  would  be  a  bad  general  who  would 
give  the  enemy  his  first  two  lines  of  defense  and  try 
only  to  hold  them  at  the  third. 

QUESTIONS 

Describe  the  convention  system.  What  was  its  weakness?  What 
is  the  direct  primary?  Trace  the  steps  by  which  a  nomination  is 
secured.  What  criticism  can  be  made  of  the  system.^  Do  you 
think  that  this  matter  could  be  remedied?  What  is  meant  by 
"non-partisan  nominations"?  Illustrate  the  importance  of  not 
forgetting  the  primary. 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  history  of  nomination  methods  in  this  country  is  told  with 
many  references  in  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Funclions  of  American 
Government,  Chapter  7.  See  especially  Merriam,  C.  E.,  Primary 
Elections. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

A  debate  on  the  relative  merits  of  the  convention  and  direct- 
primary  systems  of  nominating. 


CHAITKU  TlllirrEEN 

l^s n  M  A Ti  \ ( ;  Ci  A  M )i I )  A  1 1  ;s 

Getting  information  about  candidates.  As  the 
first  step  loward  ri;j:lil  voting,  we  must  {ry  to  find  out 
all  we  can  about  the  fitness  of  the  candidates  and 
about  the  issues  for  which  they  stand.  In  some  cases 
the  question  of  personal  Jitness  will  i)e  uppermost ;  in 
other  cases  the  polilical  principles  of  candidates 
should  be  the  subject  of  especially  careful  inquiry. 

In  national  campaigns  there  are  available  as 
sources  of  information,  first  of  all,  the  party  plat- 
forms. Then  there  are  the  speeches  of  acceptance 
made  by  the  candidates  for  President  when  they  are 
officially  notilied  of  their  nomination.  These  are 
always  published  in  full  in  all  the  principal  news- 
papers. The  newspapers  report  not  only  the  speeches 
of  candidates,  but  also  those  of  their  })rincipal  sup- 
porters, and  they  publish  a  great  deal  of  other  matter 
concerning  the  issues  of  the  campaign. 

ITnfortunately,  newspapers  are  not  always  wholly 
reliable.  One  expects  to  find  the  views  of  the  pub- 
lisher expressed  in  the  editorial  columns;  but  too 
often  the  publisher's  special  policy  leads  to  the  per- 
version and  even  to  the  suppression  of  news.  It  is 
only  by  reading  two  or  more  newspapers  whose  inter- 
ests differ  that  you  can  arrive  at  the  truth  in  many 
matters.  It  is  nnich  the  same  with  the  great  weekly 
and  monthly  magazines. 

Using  the  Congressional  Record  and  other  docu- 
ments. ^  ou  can  learn  from  the  Congressional 
Record    jnst    how   each    Senator   or    H(^pres(Mitative 


96 


Loyal  Citizenship 


SIXTY-SEVENTH   CONGRESS,  FIRST  SESSION. 

Toi.«i.  WASHINGTON,  SATURDAY,  JULY  9,  1921.  «*.  7l 


SENATE. 
Satoodat,  Jii2y  9, 1921. 
?iiaff^  wos  not  id  scssi 
Monday.  Joly  11,  1921, 

HOUSE  OF  REPRESENTATIVES. 
Saturday,  July  9, 1921. 

The  House  was  c«llpd  to  order  nt  11  o'clock  a.  m.  by  Mr. 

■  Dro  tenirx 

Shera  Montgomery,  D.  D.,  ottereO 


I  Speaker  pro  tempore. 

The  Chaplain.  I(ev    ■ 
the  followlos  prayer: 

Our  Heavenly  Father,  Thou  art  the  ci 
Uglit  nnil  uar  divine  guurdlao  through  tli 
Bight    seaaon.     Therefoi 
tabors  to  give  Tbt*  pral 


ibe  Dilnlstriea  oC  their  lo 


tor  of  the  morning 

still  watches  of  the 

al   the   threshold   of   our 

idences  are  so  cenerous  in 


We  tliank  Thee  for  Thy 


dependents  of  one  of  the  elected  officers  of  the  House,  Appftr- 
enlly  the  precedents  nre  that  the  practice  lias  been  to  pay  a 
year's  salary  to  the  widow  or  dependents  of  cterlia  at  th«  rtesk. 
Including  the  OfTiclal  Reporters  of  the  House.  The  precedents 
are  not  numerous.  The  inst  lime  on  officer  or  clerk  at  the 
desk  died  was  In  1887  A  reading  clerk  died  and  tbc  House 
proceeded  to  pay  the  widow  of  the  reading  clerk  one  year'n 
salary  Prior  to  that  time  Mr.  HIncks.  one  of  the  Official  Re- 
porters of  the  House,  died,  and  the  Committee  on  Accounts  Old 
not  ret-ommend  a  year's  salary,  but  the  House  lncrense<t  the 
amotint  and  paid  a  year's  salary  to  the  widow  of  the  reporter 
Again,  when  Mr  McEIhone.  one  of  the  Official  neporteni.  dle«. 
tht  '"'emmlttee  on  Accounts  recommended  that  his  widow  be 
paid  <.*>e  year's  salary,  and  the  Hou»e  so  voted,  and  he  wt^ 

I  brought  Hernidn  Pliltlips  here  to  the  House  nearly  24  yeara 
ago  as  assistant  Journal  clerk.  Shortly  afterwards  be  bci-ainii 
Journal  clerk  of  the  House.  From  then  on  he  was  Journal  clerk 
during  all  of  the  time  except  when  the  Damocrallc  side  of 
tlie  Bou^e  WHS  in  coutrol  of  tlie  Bouse  .  Be.  bad  a  ioog  aod 


Fig.  48.  The  Congressional  Record  contains  a  full  report  of  every 
sp)eech  made  in  either  house  of  Congress;  also  the  vote  of  each  member 
on  all  roll-call  votes.  One  fifth  of  the  members  present  may  demand  a 
roll-call  vote. 

voted  on  various  measures.  You  can  obtain  from 
the  secretary  of  state  or  the  clerk  of  the  senate  or 
house  of  representatives  of  your  state  legislature 
copies  of  the  journal  of  that  body  and  find  there  the 
vote  of  every  member  on  every  bill.  Where  a  candi- 
date has  not  served  in  Congress  or  the  state  legisla- 
ture, you  can  make  inquiries  concerning  his  past 
record ;  but  you  should  be  careful  to  hear  from  both 
his  friends  and  his  opponents  so  that  you  may  not  be 
governed  by  biased  information.  In  city  elections  you 
can  depend  to  some  extent  on  published  reports  of 
the  city  government.  In  some  states  and  cities 
there  are  good-government  organizations  which  give 
out  information  and  make  recommendations.  These 
are  of  great  assistance. 

The  short-ballot  movement.    The  very  large  num- 
ber of  candidates  makes  it  difficult  to  find  out  as 


Edimaiitm  Candidates  97 

much  as  wp  should  al)()iit  iIkiii.  Tlicn'  are  usually 
several  candidates  for  each  ofhce,  and  liiere  are  many 
offices  to  be  filled  by  election.  Not  only  are  the 
important  offices  elective,  as  the  offices  of  President, 
governor,  or  members  of  Confjress.  in  filling  Avhich 
the  people  are  deeply  interested.  l)ul  a  ^'real  nurnbrr 
of  lesser  offices,  about  which  peojjle  ordinarily  jjive 
themselves  Httle  concern,  are  elective.     //  Uir  higher 


KiG.  49.  This  ballot  from  ;»  Middle  \\  cslcrii  -I..I. 
has  six  party  columns  and  an  additional  coluiMn 
for  independent  voting.  It  requires  the  elector's 
decision  on  filling  .'Vl  oHices,  from  United  States 
President  to  township  assessor. 


98 


Loyal  Citizenship 
BALLOT  PAPER 


1 

NETTLEFOLD. 

(John  Sutton  Nettlef old,  Winter- 
bourn,  Edgbaston  Park  Road, 
Edgbaston,  Gentleman.) 

2 

TUNBRIDGE. 

(William     Stephen     Tunbridge, 

Rocklands,  Woodbourne  Road, 

Edgbaston,  Solicitor.) 

Fig.  50.  The  official  ballot  used  in  an  English  city  election.  The 
elector  was  required  to  choose  a  person  to  fill  a  single  office,  councilor 
from  his  ward.  He  had  the  opportunity  of  making  an  intelligent 
choice. 

officials  only  were  elected,  and  if  these  officials  appointed 
men  to  the  minor  positions,  the  ballot  would  be  much 
shorter  and  the  citizen  could  mark  it  far  more  intelli- 
gently. Such  different  men  as  Woodrow  Wilson, 
William  H.  Taft,  and  Theodore  Roosevelt,  have 
urged  the  necessity  of  making  the  voter's  task  easier 
by  making  the  ballot  shorter.  As  we  study  local  and 
state  govermnent,  we  shall  come  back  again  and 
again  to  the  subject  of  the  "short  ballot."  It  is  cer- 
tainly unfortunate  to  have  so  many  elective  offices  as 
to  discourage  the  citizen  from  trying  to  fmd  out  about 
the  many  candidates  for  them  (Figs.  49  and  50). 

A  candidate's  appeal.  In  considering  the  merits 
of  any  candidate,  you  should  lay  more  stress  upon  his 
record  than  upon  his  promises.  You  must  always 
try  to  find  out  whether  or  not  he  is  sincere.    This  is  a 


Estimating  Candidates  99 

difTinilt  (liinj;  lo  do.  l)ecause  many  politicians  are  as 
clever  as  ^'ood  adors  in  s«'(Mniiifr  tf)  be  siiiccrc.  Wlicn 
a  candidate  talks  almost  altogether  about  his  party's 
history  or  points  with  pride  to  the  achievements  of 
Thomas  Jefferson  or  Abraham  Lincoln,  it  is  probably 
because  he  has  very  little  to  say  for  himself.  When  a 
candidate  appeals  to  sentiment  and  prejudice  rather 
than  to  reason,  you  may  ivell  distrust  him  as  a  dema- 
gogue. 

What  constitutes  a  good  representative.  A  repre- 
sentative should  be  a  })erson  of  reputabte  private  tife, 
with  a  clear  record  for  sobriety  and  honesty.  He 
should,  other  things  being  equal,  have  an  education 
superior  to  the  average  in  the  connnunity.  On  the 
other  hand,  he  should  not  be  removed  by  any  per- 
sonal advantage  that  he  may  possess  from  a  true 
sympathy  ivilh  the  peopte.  Social  position,  wealth, 
and  education  do  not  necessarily  remove  a  man  from 
such  sympathy,  but  they  sometimes  do. 

A  representative  should  be  a  man  of  some  force  and 
personatity,  able  to  impress  his  ideas  on  others. 
Without  these  qualities  he  may  be  an  honest  and 
intelligent  representative,  but  he  will  not  be  a  very 
effective  one.  He  must  have  courage,  particularly 
moral  and  intellectual  courage.  He  should  not  merely 
reflect  the  wishes  of  his  constituents;  he  should  use 
his  best  judgment  for  the  benefit  of  all.  He  should 
not  be  an  extremist  or  a  person  given  to  fads  or 
notions,  but  he  should  be  open-minded  and  ready  to 
lead  in  securing  the  adoption  of  new  ideas  that  are 
worth  while. 


100  Loyal  Citizenship 

Finally,  a  representative  should  be  a  man  who  has 
not  been  inlimalely  associated  with  any  corrupt  poli- 
tical machine.  Such  political  machines  have  often 
made  use  of  men  of  reputable  life,  good  ability,  and 
fine  reputation,  upon  whom  they  had  some  secret 
hold  or  upon  whom  they  could  for  some  reason  de- 
pend to  serve  their  ends — an  arrangement  that  sug- 
gests the  fable  of  the  wolf  that  wore  the  coat  of  a 
sheep. 

QUESTIONS 

What  is  the  proper  attitude  toward  party?  How  can  we  obtain 
information  about  candidates?  Why  must  we  be  on  our  guard  with 
reference  to  newspapers?  How  can  we  use  the  Congressional 
Record?  the  journal  of  the  state  legislature?  What  is  the  short- 
ballot  movement?  Why  should  we  distrust  candidates'  promises? 
What  qualities  must  a  good  representative  have?  What  qualities 
must  he  not  have? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  character  of  any  truly  great  American  politican  will,  if 
analyzed,  illustrate  and  enforce  the  truths  brought  out  in  the  text. 
Different  students  may  each  be  asked  to  describe  an  ideal  repre- 
sentative by  making  a  composite  list  of  the  outstanding  characteris- 
tics of  two  such  contrasting  personages  as  Hamilton  and  Jefferson, 
'  John  Quincy  Adams  and  Jackson,  or  Clay  and  Webster.  These 
composite  characters,  as  "Alexander  Jefferson"  and  "John  Quincy 
Jackson,"  may  afterward  be  placed  in  nomination  at  a  mock  national 
convention. 

The  short-ballot  movement  is  a  splendid  topic.  Write  the  National 
Municipal  League,  261  Broadway,  New  York  City,  for  information. 
See  also  Reed,  T.  H.,  Government  for  (he  People,  pages  95-107;  and 
Childs,  R.  S.,  Short-Ballot  Principles. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 
Let  the  class  assume  the  role  of  the  city  or  county  central  com- 
mittee of  a  good-government  candidate  for  mayor,  district  attorney, 
or  other  office.  The  class  may  prepare  a  campaign  speech  or  circular 
for  general  distribution,  telling  what  kind  of  representative  the  can- 
didate would  make. 


CHAPTER  FOT  RTKFA' 
The  CiTizKN  as  L\\\m\ki:h 

Voting  directly  on  propositions.  Ilic  citizen  iiol 
only  has  lo  select  represent  at  Ives,  but  also,  with  in- 
creasing frequency,  he  has  lo  vote  "Yes"  or  "No" 
directly  on  proposed  measures.  Changes  in  state 
constitutions  are  practically  always  passed  upon  by 
the  people.  Amendments  lo  city  charters,  proposi- 
tions to  borrow  money  by  the  sale  of  bonds,  and 
other  matters  in  many  cases  have  to  be  ratified  by 
popular  vole.  Fmthermore,  in  several  stales  and 
many  cities  the  people  possess  the  power  of  iniliative 
and  referendum. 

By  "  initiative''  is  meant  the  potter  of  proposing  laivs 
by  petition.  A  constitutional  amendment,  a  law,  an 
ordinance,  or  a  charter  change  is  proposed  by  some 
individual  or  committee.  If  a  certain  specified  num- 
ber of  voters  attach  their  names  to  the  proposition, 
it  is  submitted  at  an  ensuing  election.  If  a  majority 
is  in  favor  of  the  measure,  it  becomes  law. 

By  ''referendum''  is  meant  the  submission  to  the 
people  of  a  matter  that  has  already  been  enacted  as  taw. 
The  referendum  is  instituted  by  petition.  \\  iiere  the 
right  of  referendum  exists,  the  operation  of  all 
measures  except  "emergency"  measures  is  suspended 
from  thirty  to  ninety  days  to  allow  those  opposed  to 
it  to  circulate  petitions.  If  enough  signatures  are 
secured,  the  measure  remains  suspended  and  is 
placed  on  the  ballot  at  the  next  election.  We  speak 
of  the  use  of  the  iniliative  and  referendum  as  direct 
legislation. 

101 


102 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  51.   The  citizen  rulers  of  ancient  Athens  listening  to  their  great 
statesman  Pericles,  who  led  them  through  the  power  of  persuasion. 


Legislation  by  the  people  themselves  is  the  dis- 
tinctive feature  in  direct  democracy  as  contrasted  with 
representative  democracy.  The  ancient  Athenian 
citizens,  when  they  met  in  a  single  body  and  made 
their  laws,  were  practicing  direct  democracy,  and  the 
citizens  of  some  New  England  towns  are  still  doing 
this  in  local  affairs  (Fig.  51).  Our  republic  is  a 
representative  democracy.  The  vastness  of  modern 
populations  has  compelled  the  resort  to  legislation 
through  representatives.  However,  through  the  de- 
vices of  the  initiative  and  the  referendmn  there  has 
been  a  return  in  recent  years,  in  some  measure,  to 
direct  democracy. 

Serious  business  for  the  voter.  In  many  states, 
voting  on  propositions  has  become  a  very  serious 


The  (yilizefi  as  Lawmaker 


io;i 


part  of  llio  cilizon's  husincss.  For  example,  in  De- 
cember, 191  1,  the  ])('()ple  of  California  voted  on  fcjrty- 
eiglit  questions.  1  lie  text  of  the  ])ropositions  and 
arguments  for  and  against  them,  which  the  law  re- 
quired   to   !»'   placed    in    the    hands   of  each    voter. 


Aiiiendments  to  Constitution 


Proposed  Statutes 


Arguments  Respecting  the  Same 

To  be  SubmillcJ  lo  ihc  EIrrtora  of  the  Stale  of  CaliforsU  •!  tbe 
Ccoeral  EIrctioD  oo 

TUESDAY.  NOXTMBER  2,  1920 


]o(lrv.  ballot  lilies  with  Dumber*,  •od  crrtiAcale  Bpp«*r  ta  lul  pa|«< 

I'ropotcd  cbiogri  ia  prot~*iooi  ur  priolrd  in  bUck  facrd  lyp* 

Pn>ri«t9iu  propoM^  to  be  repealed  arc  printed  la  itaUca 


Fig.  52.  A  booklet  like  this  is  sent  to  every  voter  in  Cali- 
fornia before  each  state  election.  It  };i\es  all  })ro[K)sitions 
to  be  Noted  upon,  together  with  arfinnients  for  and  against 
them.  This  particular  book  contained  ()l  pages,  38  of  these 
being  double-colunm  pages  of  smull  type. 


104  Loyal  Citizenship 

amounted  to  a  volume  of  112  large,  closely  printed, 
two-column  pages  containing  over  175,000  words — 
nearly  twice  as  many  as  in  this  book.  This  is  an 
extreme  example,  but  voting  on  propositions  is 
common  in  many  states  and  the  custom  is  spread- 
ing to  others. 

Advantages  and  disadvantages  of  the  initiative 
and  referendum.  In  voting  on  propositions  the 
voter  has  the  advantage  of  being  able  to  study  each 
question  at  his  leisure,  beforehand.  Yet  many  of  the 
measures  submitted  are  long,  complicated,  and  diffi- 
cult to  understand.  They  are,  of  course,  always  the 
work  of  an  individual  or  a  committee,  who  may  make 
mistakes.  The  purpose  of  a  law  may  be  admirable, 
and  yet  the  law  itself  may  be  very  bad.  There  is,  of 
course,  no  opportunity  for  amendment.  We  can  only 
say  "Yes"  or  "  No  "  to  what  is  put  before  us.  On  the 
other  hand,  the  initiative  with  the  referendum  gives 
the  people  a  check  on  their  elected  representatives  which 
may  prove  very  valuable. 

Deciding  how  to  vote.  In  many  localities  civic 
organizations  appoint  committees  to  study  propo- 
sitions submitted  and  to  make  recommendations. 
Sometimes  they  invite  men  of  ability  and  repute  to 
describe  the  measures  and  instruct  the  people  con- 
cerning their  effect.  Joint  debates,  too,  are  often 
held.  If  election  day  finds  a  voter  still  in  doubt  on 
any  proposition,  he  will  usually  vote  "No."  Bad 
laws  have  such  a  serious  and  lasting  effect  that  it  is 
best  not  to  adopt  a  new  law  until  you  are  sure  that  it  is  a 
good  one. 


The  (aHzch  as  lAunuakcr  103 

A  word  of  caution  about  signing  petitions. 
Many  voters  will  sign  a  pclilioii  jiisl  to  aNoid  Ix-ing 
bothered  furllicr  l»y  the  persons  circulatini:  it.  I  hey 
sign  withoul  much  ihouglil  as  lo  what  they  are 
signing.  Sometimes  the  eirculalor  gets  ten  eents  for 
every  name  signed,  and  people  will  sign  just  to  help 
him  out.  In  this  way  many  measures  that  do  not 
deserve  it  get  a  })laee  on  the  ballol.  Sneli  unworthy 
measures  lengthen  the  l)allot,  to  the  eonliision  of  the 
voters,  and  are  a  hindrance  to  good  governnicnt. 
The  citizen  should  be  as  careful  irilh  his  signature  as 
ivith  his  vote. 

QUESTIONS 

What  kind  of  measures  do  (he  people  have  to  vole  on  in  your  slale.^ 
What  is  meant  by  the  "initiative"!*  by  tlie  "referendum"!'  How 
may  voting  on  propositions  beeome  a  burden  to  voters?  What 
danger  may  there  be  in  proposed  laws  whose  pur{M)sc  is  gtKjd?  How 
can  the  voters  be  Instructed  on  propositions  submitted?  N\h;it  is 
the  duty  of  the  good  citizen  with  regard  lo  j)efitions? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 
The    initiative    and    referendum    provisions    of    your    own    state 
constitution  or  city  charter,  and  what  has  been  accomplished  under 
them.     See  Ui:i:i).  T.  II.,  Fund  ions  of  American  Governnicnt.  pages 
1 13-152,  especially  references  on  page  1.51. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

In  the  class,  discuss  and  vote  on  some  proposition  recently  sub- 
mitted to  the  people  of  your  state  or  locality,  or  alM)ut  to  be  sub- 
mitted to  them. 

Draw  up  a  measure  you  would  like  to  see  adopted  as  a  school 
policy.  Prepare  and  circulate  a  petition  in  accordance  with  your 
state  law  or  city  ordinance,  getting  signatures  among  your  fellow 
students.  Then  file  the  petition  with  the  proper  .schtw)!  authorities. 
(Remember  that  your  petition  has  no  legal  effect.) 


PART  THREE 

THE  CITIZEN  AND  THE  LOCAL  COMMUNITY 

Cooperation  and  Self-Government 


I  say  the  mission  of  government  in  civi- 
lized lands  is  not  authority  alone  (not  even 
of  law),  nor  the  rule  of  the  best  man — but 
to  train  communities  through  all  their  grades, 
beginning  with  individuals  and  ending  there 
again,  to  rule  themselves. 

Walt  Whitman 


CHAPTER  Flin  KE\ 
The  Local  Community 

The  origin  of  community  life.  We  have  already 
noted  how  priiiiilive  men  gol  loj^'etlier  in  little  bands 
for  self-proteetion.  They  l)iiih  their  luits  elose  to- 
gether and  defended  them  willi  rude  fortifications, 
often  with  palisades.  Such  were  tlie  hrst  villages. 
Men  soon  learned  that  these  villages  served  other 
purposes,  as  well  as  their  original  one  of  affording 
protection.  They  permitted  a  higher  degree  of  co- 
operation. Division  of  labor  was  carried  further  than 
it  could  have  been  among  wandering  men  or  cave 
dwellers,  and  hfe  was  enriched  through  increased 
association. 

The  growth  of  cities.  As  villages  grew  in  popu- 
lation, they  became  better  places  in  which  to  live  and 
work;  neighborhood  barter  developed  into  trade 
with  other  villages,  and  the  matter  of  getting  an  ade- 
quate and  steady  supply  of  food  became  a  more  and 
more  complex  problem.  To  grow,  any  place  nmst 
have  an  increasing  market  for  its  products  and  an 
increasing  supply  of  food  from  outside  its  limits. 
The  extent  of  the  area  in  which  it  can  sell  its  goods 
and  buy  its  food  depends  on  means  of  transportation. 
We  need  not  be  surprised,  therefore,  lo  find  lliat  Ihc 
greatest  cities  are  those  most  favorably  situated  with 
regard  to  transportation. 

In  the  last  hundred  years,  tlu'ee  factors  have  united 
to  promote  the  growth  of  cities,  to  an  extent  un- 
thought  of  in  earlier  times.  Marvelous  inrentions 
have  made  the  industries  of  cities  a  htnuhcd-fold 

109 


110  Loyal  Citizenship 


The  Local  ('omm unity  1 1 1 

more  productive;  improrenwnfs  in  agricultural 
methods  and  machinery  now  eiial>le  one  man  to  do 
what  forty  men  could  barely  do  in  1750;  the  steam 
railroad  and  the  steamship  have  given  every  city  a 
world  market  and  have  brought  to  it  the  foodstufTs 
of  the  world  (Fig.  53). 

New  York  an  example.  In  1661,  when  the  Eng- 
lish first  captured  New  Anislerdain,  the  town  occu- 
pied only  the  southernmost  portion  of  the  island  of 
Manhattan.  Its  most  important  trade  was  with  the 
Indians  and  with  the  Netherlands,  furs  being  ex- 
changed for  trinkets  and  firearms.  As  the  country 
along  the  Hudson  and  on  Long  Island  filled  up  with 
farmer  settlers,  the  population  of  the  city  slowly 
increased.  Its  merchants  sold  the  manufactured 
goods  of  Europe  to  the  settlers,  buying  in  turn  the 
products  of  their  clearings.  New  York  City,  how- 
ever, did  not  much  surpass  Philadelphia  and  Boston 
until  the  construction  of  the  Erie  Canal  brought  the 
products  of  western  New  Y'ork,  Ohio,  and  the 
country  about  the  Great  Lakes  to  its  doors. 

The  full  effect  of  the  canal  had  hardly  been  felt 
before  railroad  building  made  New  York's  mag- 
nificent harbor  the  port  of  the  whole  countr>\  Fast 
as  the  United  States  has  grown,  New  York  has 
grown  faster.  Not  only  is  it  now  the  largest  city  in 
our  country,  but  it  disputes  with  London  the  right 
to  be  considered  the  largest  city  in  the  world.  At  its 
docks  the  contents  of  freight  cars  are  endlessly  stow  ed 
into  the  holds  of  great  steamers,  and  the  cargoes 
of  unloading  steamers  are  packed  into  cars.     Hun- 


112 


Loyal  Citizenship 


New  York  Historical  Society 

Fig.  54.    New  York  dock  in  1679.    London  and  Paris  were  many 
centuries  old  when  New  York  had  its  beginnings.    Compare  Figures 

53  and  72. 


dreds  of  thousands  of  its  people  are  engaged  directly 
or  indirectly  in  the  exchange  and  transportation  of 
goods.  Other  hundreds  of  thousands  are  engaged 
in  manufactures. 

City  growth  in  the  United  States.  In  1830  there 
were  only  six  cities  in  the  United  States  with  popula- 
tions of  more  than  30,000.  All  together  they  held 
not  quite  four  per  cent  of  the  total  population  of  the 
country.  In  1919  over  33  per  cent  of  our  people 
lived  in  227  places  of  more  than  30,000.  In  1790  the 
largest  city  was  New  York,  with  33,131  people. 
Philadelphia,  with  28,522,  had  only  recently  lost  first 
place.  In  1920  New  York  had  5,621,151  people, 
and  there  were  eleven  other  cities  of  more  than  half 
a  million.     The  United  States  has  become  a  land 


The  Local  Coinmuiiilv 


113 


of  cities,  and   the  niassiruf  of  fK-opJc  has  created  tre- 
mendous problems   ( ^'i^^   .").")). 

How  communities  develop.  Evcr>'  conmiiinily 
has  had  its  first  selllcTs.  Pcrliaps  the  very  first  one 
came  trudging  in  with  a  j)ack  on  his  hack  and  an  ax  on 
his  shoulder  and  pitched  iiis  camp  on  the  hank  of  a 
stream.  Soon  the  chips  were  flying  and  a  log  cahin 
rose  under  the  shadow  of  the  forest.  Then  a  second 
traveler  settled  close  hy  for  company.  Another 
and  another  followed,  usually  with  wife  and  children. 
A  grist  mill  was  huilt,  and  a  general  store  was  opened. 
About  this  time  the  settlers  awoke  to  the  fact  that 
they  were  a  comnmnity.  The  first  thing  that  sug- 
gested the  fact  to  them  was  the  need  for  a  school  for 
their  cliildren.  They  held  a  meeting  in  the  loft  al)ove 
the  store  and  agreed  to  build  a  scliool  and  employ  a 
teacher.    On  a  day  appointed  they  came  with  their 


1830  )y;^y///^;^:\ 


U.  ■'>.  liuTcnu  of  Cfnsu.1 

Fig.  53.  ITow  jxjpuliilion  in  cilios  of  (ti»>  Unilod  Slatis  luiv  iiifi  .'50.000 
or  more  inhiil)il;iiils  compiir^-d  wilti  p()[nilalioii  oiilsidc  siicli  cilifs, 
from  |}!.'50  to  1*)1'>.  Tlic  heavily  sliadfd  |>arl  of  t-ach  line  indicates  the 
city  {)opulatioii. 


114  Loyal  Citizenship 

tools  and  oxen  and  "raised"  a  log  schoolhouse.  Then 
they  sent  to  the  older  settlements  and  secured  a 
teacher.  The  teacher  boarded  around  among  the 
parents,  and  at  the  end  of  a  period  of  service  the 
settlers  turned  over  to  some  one  of  their  number 
their  shares  of  the  teacher's  salary.  After  a  while, 
under  the  laws  of  a  state  or  a  territory,  the  people 
organized  a  school  district.  As  the  people  grew  in 
numbers,  they  found  that  they  needed  a  constable, 
and  then  streets  and  sidewalks,  lights  on  the  corners, 
and  rules  for  the  keeping  of  cows  and  pigs  behind 
fences. 

The  first  settler  was  self-sufficient.  He  needed 
little  besides  his  keen  ax  and  the  strength  of  his 
arms.  The  growing  group  of  settlers  needed  some- 
thing more,  and  that  was  the  means  for  community 
action — cooperation.  Under  the  laws  of  every  state 
or  territory  some  means  is  provided  for  satisfying 
this  need:  toivn  government  in  New  England,  county 
government  in  the  far  West  and  South,  and  township 
or  village  and  county  government  in  most  other  parts 
of  the  country.  If  these  methods  of  local  organiza- 
tion had  not  been  provided,  the  comnmnity  would 
have  had  to  find  its  own.  The  state  or  territorial 
government  organized  the  county  as  a  unit,  primarily 
as  a  means  of  enforcing  its  laws  and  preserving  order. 
But  among  other  things,  the  county  made  it  possible 
for  the  several  communities  to  build  and  maintain 
the  connecting  roads  that  they  needed  so  badly. 

As  a  town  or  village  grows,  its  needs  expand  to 
include  sewers,  paving,  a  public  library,  parks,  fire 


The  Local  Community 


113 


U.  S.  Geological  Surrey 


Fio.  .'56.  A  picinoor  comniiinity  at  Valdez,  Alaska.  Such  scenes  have 
marked  the  settlement  of  America  from  Jamestown  and  Plymouth 
to  Seattle  and  Cape  Nome. 

protection,  and  a  real  police  department  to  replace 
the  constable;  indeed,  its  wants  seem  endless,  never 
satisfied,  and  always  increasing.  It  must  have  greater 
powers,  and  it  is  incorporated  as  a  city. 

Community  spirit.  The  steps  in  the  founding  and 
growth  of  a  community  were  never  followed  exactly 
as  we  have  described.  But  they  have  ])een  followed,  in 
substance,  thousands  of  limes  in  the  history  of  our 
country.  Our  account  indicates  how  community 
needs  grow  and  how  connnunity  government  nmst 
be  created  and  extended  to  satisfy  litem.  Through 
all  the  changes  that  we  imagined,  from  settlement  to 
city,  there  never  ceased  to  be  a  true  connnunity. 
There  continued  to  be  common  needs  thai  had  to  be 
met  tln-ough  the  joint  action  of  I  he  people.     The 


116  Loyal  Citizenship 

complex  problems  of  the  city  were  just  as  real  as 
were  the  simple  problems  of  the  early  settlers,  and 
their  solution  called  for  a  spirit  of  cooperation  just 
as  truly  as  did  the  raising  of  that  first  log  school- 
house.  The  community  spirit — a  common  purpose  to 
further  the  public  welfare — is  the  quality  essential  to 
successful  community  life. 

In  a  growing  community  there  are  often  forces 
that  tend  to  weaken  community  spirit.  Perhaps  a 
new  factory  brings  in  a  force  of  foreign  workers. 
These,  while  they  remain  un-Americanized,  may  fail 
to  get  together  in  spirit  with  the  older  population. 
As  group  of  immigrants  follows  group, — Italians, 
Slavs,  Jews,  and  Syrians, — each  as  different  from 
the  others  as  from  the  original  American  stock,  the 
maintenance  of  common  ideals  among  the  whole 
people  becomes  more  difficult.  Then,  too,  as  cities 
grow,  the  extremes  of  wealth  and  poverty  tend  to 
stand  out  more  and  more.  Class  feehng,  strikes,  and 
all  sorts  of  misunderstandings  often  develop.  The 
community  suffers  because  its  community  spirit  is 
weakened.  Under  such  circumstances  community 
spirit  must  be  dehberately  cultivated  by  every  means 
in  our  power. 

QUESTIONS 
What  are  some  of  the  benefits  of  community  life?  What  are  some 
of  the  causes  of  the  growth  of  cities?  Which  do  you  think  most 
important?  Why?  How  is  this  illustrated  in  the  case  of  New  York 
City?  How  many  cities  in  the  United  States  had  over  30,000  people 
in  1790?  What  was  the  largest  city?  What  was  its  population? 
How  large  was  New  York  City  in  1920?  What  proportion  of  the 
total  population  of  the  United  States  lived  in  cities  of  over  30,000 


The  Ijjcal  Cotuninnily  117 

in  1830?  in  1919?  How  do  coiimninitii's  f^jrow !'  \\  li;it  iiiiinmr  of 
beginning  a  roiiiiminily,  otlu-r  than  i\u',  one  iiidicatt-d  in  the  tcxl, 
can  you  iiiiagincP  \\  Jiat  is  the  priiiie  essential  of  roiiiimniity  life? 
How  uiuy  Aiiiericani^salion  work  {)roriiote  this  essential  thing? 

TOPIC  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Tlio  origin  nnd  dfvclopiiicnl  of  your  own  coinnuniity,  with  sjM'cial 
reference  to  examples  of  eoniniunily  coiiperation. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

The  class  organi/alion  can  begin  the  discussion  of  conmuniity 
needs  with  a  view  to  singling  out  one  need  that  it  can  and  will  do 
something  about. 


CHAPTER  SIXTEEN 
City  Government 

The  city.  There  are  cynical  people  who  will  tell 
you  that  the  city  is  hopelessly  corrupt  and  that  the 
best  you  can  do  is  to  let  city  politics  alone.  Do  not 
believe  them.  They  are  willing  to  enjoy  all  the 
advantages  of  city  life  and  then  slander  the  source  of 
those  advantages.  There  is  much,  even  in  the  worst 
city,  to  admire  if  one  has  eyes  that  can  see  what  is 
good.  At  any  rate,  for  all  the  advantages  that  your 
city  gives  you,  it  is  entitled  to  your  gratitude  and 
service.  You  should  be  concerned  about  its  faults 
chiefly  with  a  view  to  helping  remedy  them. 

The  Ephebic  oath.  A  high  ideal  of  citizenship  was 
attained  in  ancient  Athens.  There,  every  eligible 
youth  of  eighteen  entered  the  Ephebia  or  military 
college  for  two  years  of  training.  But  first  he  took  a 
splendid  oath  of  allegiance  to  his  city.  You  can  do 
no  better  for  your  city  than  firmly  to  resolve,  in  the 
manner  of  the  Ephebi, — 

"To  bring  no  disgrace  to  the  city  by  dishonest  act. 
To  fight  for  the  ideals  and  sacred  things,  alone  and 
with  many.  To  desert  no  faltering  comrade.  To 
revere  and  obey  the  laws,  and  to  incite  reverence  and 
respect  in  those  above  us  who  are  prone  to  annul 
or  set  them  at  naught.  To  strive  unceasingly  to 
quicken  the  public  sense  of  civic  duty.  To  transmit 
this  city  not  less  but  better  and  more  beautiful  than 
it  was  transmitted  to  us." 

The  city  as  a  business  corporation.  The  city  is  a 
corporation — what  lawyers  sometimes  call  "an  arti- 

118 


Cily  Government 


119 


/',//  and  CorbcU,  ArchilfcU 


Fig   57     The  ctouh  of  nuiniripal  l.nildinps  in  Court  Square.  Spring- 
panile)  is  the  audiluriuiu;  to  the  right  is  the  aduiimslrulion  building. 


120  Loyal  Citizenship 

ficial  person" ;  the  state  has  given  it  the  power  to  own 
property,  to  sue  and  be  sued,  and  not  only  to  govern 
within  its  boundaries  but  to  engage  in  many  business 
undertakings  for  the  benefit  of  its  people.  Judged  by 
the  services  it  renders,  it  is  little  other  than  a  business 
corporation.  Paving  streets;  digging  sewers;  estab- 
lishing and  maintaining  parks,  playgrounds,  and 
pubhc  baths;  and  providing  water,  light,  heat,  and 
transportation  for  its  people  generally  are  essentially 
business  tasks.  Also,  in  strictly  govermnental 
matters  such  as  the  police  and  fire  departments,  the 
actual  work  of  management  is  much  Uke  that  in  a 
private  business. 

Legislation  and  administration  in  city  govern- 
ment. In  every  government  and  in  every  business  a 
distinction  is  drawn  between  deciding  what  to  do  and 
doing  it.  In  government,  deciding  what  to  do  is 
legislation,  and  doing  it  is  administration. 

In  our  state  and  national  governments,  legislation 
includes  the  making  of  many  decisions  of  great  and 
lasting  importance  regarding  such  matters  as  the 
relations  of  capital  and  labor,  divorce,  damages  for 
personal  injuries,  and  the  conduct  of  interstate  com- 
merce and  banking.  In  city  govermnent,  legislation 
requires  decisions  on  such  questions  as  these:  "Shall 
we  build  this  bridge,  sewer,  or  street?  Shall  we  buy 
this  park,  estabhsh  this  pubhc  bath,  or  found  that 
playground?  How  much  money  shall  we  spend  on 
police  or  fire  protection,  on  cleaning  the  streets,  and 
on  the  pubhc-health  service?"  The  importance  of 
administration,  as  compared  with  legislation,  is  much 


(uty  Govcnimeiil  121 

(jrealer  in  cily  (joverninenl  than  in  nalional  or  slalc 
yovernnwnl. 

Legislation — the  poirer  of  decision — should  be  in  the 
hands  of  the  people  or  their  represenlatives.  Tliat  is  tlie 
essence  of  democracy.  In  a  city  government  there 
should  be  several  legislators — enough  so  tiiat  lliey 
may  deliberate  over  the  questions  tlicy  have  to  de- 
cide. There  should  not,  however,  be  so  many  as  to 
make  discussion  dillicull.  I'liere  should  be  among 
them  at  least  some  representative  of  every  important 
group  of  people  in  the  community. 

But  adnunistraiion — carrying  out  the  decisions  of 
the  people — should  Ije  intrusted  to  men  of  executive 
ability  and  special  training  regardless  of  political 
consideration,  for  the  more  expert  an  executive  is, 
the  better  the  wishes  of  the  people  w  ill  be  carried  out. 
In  a  city,  for  example,  if  a  man  is  to  be  in  charge  of  a 
department  of  public  works,  it  does  not  make  any 
difference  whether  he  is  a  Republican  or  a  Democrat, 
a  single-taxer  or  a  nmnicipal-ownershi])  entliusiast. 
He  may  be  as  he  pleases,  provided  he  is  a  competent 
engineer  and  a  ca})able  executive — the  best-cpialified 
man  obtainable  for  the  place,  (iood  executives, 
however,  are  hard  to  get  by  election,  especially  to 
fdl  nmnicipal  offices. 

Forms  of  city  government.  Hiere  are  three  forms 
of  city  governnieni,  whicii  \Nitli  variations  are  in 
general  use  in  our  country.  These  city  governments 
are  by  (1)  mayor  and  council,  {2)  commission  (3) 
manager  (Fig.  38). 

Under  government  Ijy  mayor  and  council  legislation 


122  Loyal  Citizenship 

is  usually  in  the  hands  of  a  single,  fairly  numerous 
body  or  council,  subject  to  a  veto  by  the  mayor. 
Executive  power  is  in  the  hands  of  the  mayor.  He  is 
elected  by  the  people  and  holds  office  usually  for  a 
term  of  two  or  four  years.  Sometimes  there  are 
elective  executive  officers  besides  the  mayor,  each  of 
whom  exercises  independently  a  part  of  the  executive 
power. 

Under  the  commission  plan  of  city  government  aU 
power,  both  legislative  and  executive,  is  in  the  hands 
of  a  commission,  usually  of  five  men,  elected  at  large. 
For  executive  purposes  each  member  is  given  inmie- 
diate  charge  of  a  department  or  a  group  of  depart- 
ments. The  commissioners  receive  salaries  and 
usually  give  practically  all  their  time  to  the  work. 

Under  the  city-manager  plan  legislation  is  intrusted 
to  a  small  council  whose  members  receive  little  or  no 
sgdary,  while  executive  authority  is  exercised  by  a 
manager  appointed  by  the  council  and  removable  by 
them  at  any  time.  He  receives  a  fairly  large  salary 
and  devotes  aU  his  time  to  the  city's  business. 

QUESTIONS 
Is  it  right  to  live  in  a  city  and  keep  out  of  its  afTairs?  How  does  the 
dictionary  define  the  word  "politics"?  In  what  respects  may  a 
city  government  be  regarded  as  a  business  enterprise?  What  is  the 
distinction  between  legislation  and  administration?  Wherein  are 
the  problems  of  state  and  national  government  different  from  those 
of  city  government?  In  which  of  these  is  administration  relatively 
more  important  than  legislation?  What  are  the  qualities  of  a  good 
lawmaker?  of  a  good  executive?  Can  good  city  executives  usually 
be  chosen  by  popular  election?  Should  executive  power  be  given  to 
a  body  or  to  an  individual?  What  are  the  chief  characteristics 
of  mayor  and  council  government?  of  commission  government?  of 
manager  government? 


City  Government 


123 


^ 

Tnt.  PtUFLt, 

JLLDICV\RY 

1 

—  —  _—    — 

1 

CITT  COAAMISSION                            | 

COMM'R.OF 
FINANCE  <& 
REVENUE 

COMM'R.OF 
PUBLIC 
WORKS 

COMM'ROF 

PUBLIC 

AFFAIRS 

COMM'R.  OF 

PUB.  HEALTH 

&>  SAFETT 

COMM'R. 

OF 
SUPPLIES 

Fit;.  .'>8.    C.ity  organization  under  the  mayor  and  council,  the  com- 
mission, and  the  city-manager  plans. 


124  Loyal  Citizenship 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Details  of  the  government  of  your  own  city  (in  a  country  school, 
of  your  nearest  city)  should  be  investigated  and  made  the  subject 
of  reports  in  class.  There  should  be  a  report  on  the  charter  of  your 
city  or  on  the  municipal-corporations  act  of  your  state.  Members 
of  the  class  might  well  interview  city  officials.  For  this  purpose 
they  should  have  letters  of  introduction  from  the  teacher.  They 
should  state  their  business  briefly  and  clearly,  take  notes,  and  not 
stay  too  long. 

The  mayor  and  council  form  of  city  government;  the  commission 
form;  the  manager  form.  See  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  City  Govern- 
ment and  Digest  of  Short  Ballot  Charters;  The  City  Manager  Plan 
(pubhshed  by  the  Short  Ballot  Organization,  New  York  City); 
Debaters'  Handbook  Series,  The  City  Manager  Plan;  Reed,  T.  H., 
Form  and  Functions  of  American  Government,  Chapter  16;  and  recent 
magazine  articles. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

A  debate  on  the  proposition:  Resolved,  That  the  manager  form  of 
government  is  best  suited  to  the  conditions  of  American  cities. 

The  organized  class  may  test  the  relative  merits  of  committee  and 
single-head  management  by  applying  them  in  different  matters  that 
it  may  be  interested  in. 

A  talk  by  the  mayor  or  some  other  city  official  will  be  helpful. 

If  possible,  arrangements  should  be  made  to  have  the  class  as  a 
whole  attend  a  meeting  of  the  city  council. 

The  class  may  perhaps  desire  to  take  the  Ephebic  oath. 


CHAPTER  SEVENTEEN 
Town  and  Township  Government 

The  town  or  township.  The  early  scttlcnioiits  in 
New  Enfiland  were  usually  made  by  groups  of  set- 
tlers, each  group  already  organized  as  a  church  and 
going  in  a  body  to  occupy  lands  that  had  been 
granted  it.  All  New  England  thus  came  to  be  a 
patchwork  of  irregularly  sfidpcd  lowns  of  varyinff  area 
and  population.  But  west  of  the  Alleghenies,  Con- 
gress divided  the  country  into  townships,  every  one 
six  miles  square  and  with  boundaries  running  always 
north,  south,  east,  and  west.  These  Congressional 
townships  did  not  correspond  at  all  willi  (he  natural 
lay  of  the  land,  and  this  fact  kepi  (hem  from  develoj)- 
ing  a  really  vigorous  community  life. 

The  New  England  town.  The  New  England  set- 
tlers were  very  independent  peoj)le,  who  governed 
themselves  in  a  town  meeting  of  all  the  voters.  They 
had  no  very  clear  idea  of  any  limits  to  their  author- 
ity, and  they  attended  to  matters  as  varied  as  buying 
a  dress  for  a  poor  widow  and  defying  the  king.  The 
town  meetings  were  "not  only  the  source  but  the 
school  of  democracy."  They  are  no  longer  so  glori- 
ously indejxMident  as  in  colonial  times,  but  they  are 
even  yet  the  most  democratic  governments  within 
our  country.  Many  of  the  larger  towns  have  become 
cities,  so  that  the  towns  of  the  present  day  are  usually 
small  in  po])ulation;  l)ut  a  surj)risingly  large  number 
of  comnmnities  have  clung  to  town  government  long 
after  becoming  big  enough  to  be  cities. 

The  town  meeting.      The  governing  authority  of 


126 


Loyal  Citizenship 


i^^fiitJM 

m                                 ^^L 

^^M 

^.  —w^jiit^^rsiimm§ 

Fig.  59.  Scene  from  the  Pilgrim  Tercentenary  pageant  held  at  Plym- 
outh, Massachusetts.  It  represents  the  signing  of  the  Mayflower 
Compact,  which  is  regarded  as  the  first  of  written  constitutions.  It 
provided  for  the  government  of  the  first  New  England  community. 

a  New  England  town,  as  we  have  seen,  is  the  town 
meeting,  an  assembly  of  all  the  voters.  It  is  held 
annually  in  the  town  hall,  and  special  town  meetings 
may  be  held  when  there  is  occasion  for  them.  The 
regular  meeting  receives  the  reports  of  the  various 
officers  for  the  year  preceding,  passes  on  their 
accounts,  elects  their  successors,  adopts  such  by-laws 
or  ordinances  as  seem  necessary,  and  makes  appro- 
priations and  levies  taxes  for  the  ensuing  year.  It 
lasts  all  day.  The  morning  is  usually  spent  in  ballot- 
ing for  officers,  and  the  afternoon  is  devoted  to  the 
discussion  of  reports  which  have  been  previously 
printed  and  placed  in  the  hands  of  the  voters,  and  to 
other  business  specffied  in  the  "warrant"  or  call  for 
the  town  meeting.    Generally  town  meetings  are  well 


Town  and  Township  Government  127 

attended.  Any  citizen  present  is  free  to  speak.  There 
is  a  good  deal  of  debating,  and  the  discussions  are 
likely  to  be  very  intelligent.  No  better  method  of 
controlling  the  conduct  of  j)ul)lic  servants  has  ever 
been  discovered. 

The  principal  officers  of  the  town  are  the  board  of 
selectmen,  who  may  be  said  to  be  the  deputies  of  the 
town  meeting.  There  are  commonly  three  of  them, 
but  sometimes  more.  They  are  usually  elected  for 
one  year  and  are  often  reelected.  Between  meetings 
they  have  authority  to  do  almost  anything  that  the 
town  meeting  itself  can  do,  except  to  levy^  taxes. 
Each  town  has  a  town  clerk  who  keeps  the  minutes 
of  the  town  meeting  and  all  other  town  records.  He 
is  in  many  cases  reelected  year  after  year.  There  are 
also  town  treasurers,  constables,  etc.  To  be  thoroughly 
successful,  the  town-meeting  system  requires  a  popu- 
lation of  not  more  than  five  or  six  thousand  thor- 
oughly American  or  Americanized  people.  A  failure 
in  community  spirit  is  even  more  fatal  in  its  results  in 
a  New  England  town  than  in  a  city  governed  by  a 
represent  alive  council. 

Township  government  outside  New  England. 
In  fifteen  states  outside  New  England — New  York, 
Michigan,  Illinois,  Wisconsin,  Indiana,  Nebraska, 
Missouri,  Kansas,  and  Oklahoma;  also,  Pennsyl- 
vania, Ohio,  Minnesota,  Iowa,  North  Dakota,  and 
South  Dakota — townships  are  organized  for  general 
purposes  of  local  self-government.  In  some  of  them 
town  meetings  are  held,  although  these  are  by  no 
means  as  important  as  in  New  England. 


128  Loyal  Citizenship 

In  the  first  nine  of  the  fifteen  states  named,  the 
executive  business  of  the  township  is  in  the  hands  of 
a  single  officer  called  a  supervisor,  trustee,  or  town 
chairman.  In  addition,  there  is  usually  an  elective 
township  board  of  three  members,  which  has  charge 
of  the  financial  affairs  of  the  town.  In  the  last  six 
states  named  the  principal  township  authority  is  a 
board  of  three  members  elected  by  the  people.  The 
people  in  either  case  usually  elect  a  clerk,  assessor, 
treasurer,  justice  of  the  peace,  and  constable.  In  the 
other  states  of  the  Union  the  township  is  of  no  prac- 
tical importance  as  a  unit  of  government,  although  it 
is  used  as  a  district  of  the  county  for  administrative 
purposes. 

QUESTIONS 

What  constitutes  a  town  in  New  England?  What  is  a  Congres- 
sional township?  What  effect  has  the  Congressional  township  had 
on  the  development  of  local  government  west  of  the  Alleghenies? 
Why  is  the  New  England  town  worth  studying?  How  has  it  been 
a  school  of  self-government?  What  is  the  board  of  selectmen? 
What  are  the  powers  of  the  selectmen?  Does  the  organized  township 
exist  outside  New  England?  Is  the  township  used  in  your  state? 
If  so,  for  what  purpose?    What  are  its  officers? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 
The  New  England  town  meeting.  See  Fiske,  John,  American 
Political  Ideals;  Fairlie,  J.  A.,  Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns, 
and  Villages;  Munro,  W^  B.,  Government  of  the  United  States;  and 
Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions  of  American  Government,  Chapters 
17  and  18.  Your  own  town  or  township  should  be  investigated  if  it 
is  of  any  importance  as  a  unit  of  local  government. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 
Turn  the  class  into  a  miniature  town  meeting,  including  in  the 
"warrant,"  or  call  for  the  meeting,  questions  directly  affecting  the 
affairs  of  the  class. 


CHAPTER  EIGHTEEN 
County  Government 

The  county.  Every  stair  in  I  ho  Ignited  States  is 
divided  into  counties,  except  Louisiana,  wlicrc  the 
division  corresponding  to  the  county  is  knoun  as  tlie 
parish.  Counties  vai^  ^^reatly  in  size  and  j)opula- 
tion.  Outside  New  Enj^land  they  are  the  principal 
unit  of  rural  local  governnieriL  and  they  are  tlie  sole 
unit  where  there  is  no  town  or  lownsliij)  orfranization. 
Cities  situated  within  a  county  are  ^^enerally  inde- 
pendent of  its  autliority.  Tlie  inhabitants  of  the 
city  are,  however,  taxed  to  maintain  the  connly  ^'ov- 
ernment,  and  they  take  part  in  electing  its  oflicers. 
The  people  of  cities  ordinarily  pay  little  attention  to 
their  county  govenmient,  and  machine  politicians 
sometimes   take  advantage  of  this  circumstance. 

The  county  board.  The  principal  authority  in 
the  county  is  vested  in  the  county  board.  To  the 
board  belongs  the  duty  of  making  aj)])ro})riations  and 
levying  taxes  for  the  support  of  the  county  govern- 
ment; building  and  maintenance  of  highways;  poor 
relief;  and  the  conduct  of  other  matters.  There  are 
two  main  types  of  county  boards.  Tho  first  type  con- 
sists of  from  three  to  live  (occasionally  more)  ntern- 
hers  elected  by  districts  or  by  (lie  voters  tlirougltout  (lie 
county  as  a  wtiole.  With  many  variations  it  is  found 
in  most  of  the  states.  The  second  type  is  a  large 
\x)ard  made  up  of  supervisors,  one  of  whom  is  elected 
from  each  town — or  ward  of  a  city-\Nilhin  the 
county.  This  type  of  board  prevails  in  New  ^  ork 
New  Jersey,  Illinois,  Michigan,  and  \\isct)nsin. 

129 


130 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  60.  Tlic  comihoiise  at  \\  illiainsliurg,  \  iryinia,  a  ty{>i('al  old 
Southern  county-government  building.  It  was  honestly  built,  accord- 
ing to  a  simple  and  dignified  plan,  in  1769. 

Officers.  Besides  the  county  board  there  are  nu- 
merous other  county  officers,  all  of  whom  are  usually 
elected  by  the  people,  once  in  two  or  foiu-  years.  The 
judges  are  in  some  states  county  officers,  and  the 
district  (or  county)  attorney  almost  always  is  such. 
The  sheriff  is  the  head  pohce  officer  of  the  county  as 
weU  as  an  agent  of  the  courts.  He  has  charge  of  the 
county  jail  and  is  looked  to  for  the  preservation  of 
order  and  the  detection  and  suppression  of  crime. 
The  coroner,  with  the  assistance  of  a  jury  of  six  men, 
holds  inquests  over  the  bodies  of  persons  who  die  un- 
der circumstances  that  need  to  be  investigated.  The 
county  clerk  keeps  the  records  of  the  county,  including 
those  of  its  principal  court,  and  he  sometimes  has 
duties  in  connection  with  the  registering  of  voters. 


County  (lorcrnnicfil  131 

The  recorder  or  registrar  of  deeds  is  llie  ofTiccr  under 
whose  supervision  transfers  of  real  estate  are  re- 
corded. Tlie  auditor  is  the  county  bookkeeper.  The 
assessor  estimates  the  value  of  properly  ^^ithin  the 
county  for  })ur])oses  of  taxation.  The  fax  colleclor  sees 
to  it  that  taxes  are  gathered,  and  tlie  treasurer  keeps 
the  county  funds.  The  surveyor  or  engineer  is  in 
charge  of  county  public  works.  The  superintendent 
of  schoots  is  the  chief  educational  ofhcer  in  the  county. 
Tliis  is  not  a  complete  list  of  all  the  officers  elected  in 
counties,  but  it  includes  those  usually  met  with. 

Criticism  of  county  government.  It  is  in  county 
government  that  tlie  long  ballot  has  its  worst  results. 
Each  of  the  county  officers  is  elected  independently 
of  the  rest,  and  the  salaries  of  county  officers  are  in 
many  places  fixed  by  state  law,  whicli  the  county 
board  nmst  obey.  Tliere  is  no  head  to  county  govern- 
ment, and  cooperation  among  county  officers  is  left  to 
chance.  On  the  whole,  it  is  remarkable  that  they  get 
along  together  as  well  as  they  do  (Fig.  61). 

County  government  has  advanced  little  from  the 
condition  in  which  our  forefathers  brought  it  from 
seventeenth-century  England.  The  scheme  was 
fairly  satisfactory^  under  the  simple  conditions  of 
frontier  life,  but  it  is  not  suited  to  the  needs  of  mod- 
ern America.  There  has  been  some  movement  to- 
ward a  reform  of  county  goverrmieiit.  but  it  has  not 
progressed  very  far.  In  a  few  states,  including  (Cali- 
fornia, counties  are  now  permitted  to  adopt  charters 
for  themselves.     Los  Angeles  and  other  California 


132 


Loyal  Citizenship 


counties  have   adopted   charters  providing  for   the 
sliorl  ballot  and  a  better-arranged  administration. 

A  unit  of  state  administration.  There  is  another 
aspect  of  the  county  that  must  be  kept  in  mind.  The 
county  exists  only  partly  as  a  means  for  giving  the 
people  local  self-goverimient.  It  is  mainly  a  dislrid 
for  the  execution  of  state  lousiness.  The  judges,  prose- 
cuting attorney,  and  sheriff  are  almost  wholly  en- 
gaged in  the  enforcement  of  state  laws.    The  county 


PEOPLE   OF 
THE  COUNTY 


COUNTY- 
COMMISSIONER 


AUDITOP- 


Fig.  61.  A  suggestion  fur  an  directive  organization  of 
county  government.  Try  to  diagram  the  actual  govern- 
ment of  your  county,  and  then  compare  the  organization  of 
your  county  with  the  organization  suggested  in  this  figure. 


doiinfy  fiorrrfinirnl  ]?}'.\ 

clerk  is  a  xcvy  iniporlaiil  link  in  I  lie  election  systrrn 
of  the  slale.  in  inosl  stales  llir  assessor,  tax  collec- 
tor, and  treasurer  are  Iar;j:ely  en^'a<;e(l  in  collecting' 
taxes  for  the  slale  ^a)\crnrnenl.  ^  el  onci'  llieir' 
conduct  llic  stale  has  (tlniosl  fto  cofilrol.  Iheir  onl\  re- 
sponsibility is  toward  the  })eople  \Nho  elect  them  to 
office.  This  makes  the  enforcement  of  stale  laws  very 
difficult,  if  local  jniblic  oj)inion  does  not  favor  their 
enforcement.  A  county  attorney,  for  examj)le.  is 
likely  to  prosecute  men  who  sell  liquor  unlawfully  or 
not  to  prosecute  I  hem.  according  to  the  wishes  of  the 
people  who  elected  liini  to  oflice.  In  a  few  states  the 
governor  has  pow  er  to  remove  a  sherilf  or  prosecul  ing 
attorney  who  neglects  his  duty,  but  in  most  states  the 
governor  has  no  power  lo  interfere  until  ciicuni- 
slances  arise  that  justify  the  use  of  the  militia. 

QUESTIONS 

Wliat  is  a  county!*  How  does  ttu*  presence  of  cities  witliin  a  coi:nty 
affect  county  goxernnienl?  Wluil,  in  {general,  are  the  powers  of  the 
county  l)oard?  W  tiat  two  types  of  county  hoards  are  there;'  How  is 
ttie  county  hoard  made  up  in  your  county?  Tell  what  you  can  of 
tlie  duties  of  the  sheriff,  coroner,  recorder,  auditor,  assessor,  treasurer, 
tax  collector,  and  surveyor.  Which  of  these  officers  do  you  ha\ e  in 
your  county?  What  other  officers  does  your  county  have?  \\  hat 
defects  can  you  point  out  in  county  fjoverruuent ?  To  what  extent 
is  the  county  a  unit  of  slate  achuinislralion?  How  much  control 
has  the  state  over  county  ollicers? 

TOPICS  FOR   INVESTIGATION 

The  government  of  your  county,  ("oimly  government  is  nearly 
as  various  as  city  govermueni,  and  it  will  he  necessary  to  iii\estigate 
local  details.  Each  ollice  will  furnish  a  lopic.  I'lrsoiiai  inters  lews 
may  be  used  here  to  great  advantage. 


134  Loyal  Citizenship 

Any  especially  interesting  phases  of  local  county  history.  See 
Fairlie,  J.  A.,  Local  Government  in  Counties,  Towns,  and  Vil- 
lages; GiLBERTSoN,  W.  S.,  Countj  Government;  Munro,  W.  B., 
Government  of  the  United  States;  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions 
of  American  Government,  Chapters  17  and  18. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Attend  a  meeting  of  the  county  board.  If  such  a  meeting  cannot 
be  attended,  the  prosecuting  attorney  or  some  other  county  official 
may  be  invited  to  talk  to  the  class  about  county  government. 


CHAPTER  M\ETEE\ 
Local  Management  of  Schools 

The  county  and  the  schools.  In  most  of  tlic 
states  each  couiily  lias  ils  su/H'riiift'ndcnl  of  scIkhjIs. 
who  is  usually  eleeted  by  the  ])('oj)l('.  With  city 
schools  he  has  practically  iiotliiii^'  to  do.  It  is  his 
l)usiness  to  visit  rund  schools,  to  fjel  local  authorities 
to  adopt  the  right  methods,  and  to  secure  good 
teachers.  It  is  also  his  duty  to  see  that  the  laws  with 
regard  to  school  attendance  and  the  course  of  study 
are  carried  out.  He  has  a  great  deal  to  do  in  the 
collection  of  statistics,  the  payment  of  teachers'  sala- 
ries, and  the  apportioiunent  of  state  and  county 
funds.  Once  each  year  he  is  expected  to  hold  an 
institute  which  all  teachers  are  required  to  attend  in 
order  that  they  may  be  instructed  in  the  latest  edu- 
cational methods.  The  position  of  county  superin- 
tendent is  very  laborious  and  diflicult,  and  it  re- 
quires a  high  degree  of  expert  knowledge  of  schools, 
never  failing  tact,  and  genuine  courage. 

In  some  states  the  county  superintendent  is 
assisted  by  a  county  board  of  education,  among  whose 
duties  is  the  examination  of  teachers.  In  a  few  of  the 
Southern  states  the  county  board  is  really  in  charge 
of  the  schools  of  the  county,  but  this  is  not  generally 
the  case.  In  many  states  the  schools  are  largely  sup- 
ported by  taxes  levied  by  the  county  board  and  ap- 
portioned among  the  several  districts. 

School  districts:  their  control.  The  actual  man- 
agement of  school  matters  is  left  to  the  school  district, 
except  in  some  of  the  Southern  and  W  estern  states 

135 


136  Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  62.  A  rural  school.  Tlie  playground  equipment  is  to  be  com- 
mended, but  the  building  and  grounds  might  well  be  made  more 
attractive.  The  pupils  here  would  have  a  fine  opportunity  for  civic 
cooperation  in  improving  the  appearance  of  their  school. 

where  it  remains  in  the  county.  Each  city,  town,  or 
township  usually  also  constitutes  a  school  district, 
but  as  a  district  it  is  a  separate  corporation  having 
its  own  property  and  its  own  officers.  The  rural  dis- 
trict is  almost  everywhere  governed  by  an  unpaid 
board  of  trustees,  usually  of  three  members  elected 
by  the  people. 

In  New  England  and  in  some  other  parts  of  the 
country,  rural  and  village  schools  are  grouped  into 
districts.  A  joint  school  committee  meets  once  a  year, 
appoints  the  superintendent  of  the  district,  and  fixes 
his  salary.  In  this  way  one  man  may  superintend  the 
schools  of  from  two  to  five  towns. 

The  powers  of  local  bodies  for  the  control  of 
schools  include  the  appointment  of  teachers,  provid- 


Local  Maiuujcitienl  of  Schools  1!>7 

in»  school  l)uil(linf;s  and  all  llicir  ('{|uij)iii('iil.  and 
levying  local  taxes  for  school  purposes.  In  sornc 
states  such  bodies  have  a  measure  ol"  conlrol  over 
courses  of  study  and  the  broader  questions  of  edu- 
cational policy.  In  other  slates  the  school  laws  are 
most  minutely  detailed  and  leave  little  discretion  to 
local  school  ofTicials. 

City  control.  City  school  l)oards  or  "boards  of 
education"  vary  much  in  size,  powers,  and  terms 
of  office  of  members.  New  York  has  a  board  of 
seven  members,  and  Chicago  a  board  of  twenty-one. 
The  tendency  is  toward  smaller  boards,  and  five 
members  may  be  safely  taken  as  the  typical  number. 
The  members  are  usually  elected,  but  in  a  few  cities 
they  are  appointed  by  the  mayor.  They  seldom 
receive  salaries. 


1 .'.'(.. r,  .Irchitccl 


Fig.  6.3.  The  MiKinloy  Wv^h  ScIkioI.  Si.  I.oiiis.  Missouri.  An  exitiii- 
ple  of  modern  school  architecture  of  a  kind  that  relleels  credit  iiik)ii  a 
city. 


138  Loyal  Citizenship 

It  is  the  rule  for  all  city  boards  of  education  to 
appoint  a  city  superintendent  of  schools  to  whom  is 
intrusted  the  direct  management  of  the  schools. 
The  superintendent  is  presumably  a  trained  teacher 
of  executive  ability  who  understands  educational 
problems.  He  is  usually  given  a  free  hand  in  the 
management  of  the  schools,  so  long  as  the  board  of 
education  has  confidence  in  his  ability.  The  board  of 
education  rarely  interferes  in  the  details  of  his  work. 

QUESTIONS 

What  are  the  duties  of  the  county  superintendent  of  schools? 

What  is  a  county  board  of  education?    To  what  unit,  in  most  states, 

is  the  local  management  of  schools  left?    In  your  state,  how  is  a  rural 

school  board  made  up?   a  city  board?     What  are  the  powers  and 

duties  of  a  city  superintendent  of  schools?    What  is  his  relation  to 

the  board? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  management  of  your  own  schools;    county  board,   county 

superintendent,  local  school  board,  and  school  finance.    Information 

can  be  obtained  by  personal  investigation,  interviews,  and  study  of 

the  laws. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

The  opportunities  for  direct  observation  are  here  present  to  the 
highest  degree.  The  students  will  probably  want  to  see  the  county 
or  city  superintendent  and  perhaps  hear  him  give  a  talk  on  school 
government.    They  may  also  want  to  see  the  school  board  in  session. 


CHAPTEU  1  WENTY 
Police  and  Ftri:  Protection 

The  prime  function  of  government.  The  j)rotoc- 
tion  of  life  and  properly  nnus  the  first  duty  of  ^govern- 
ment, and  even  now  it  is  its  most  important  duty. 
Whatever  government  may  or  may  riot  do  witli 
respect  to  schools  or  other  matters,  it  must  preserve 
order,  protect  property,  and  preveid  or  piinisli  crime. 
The  rules  or  laws  which  are  necessary  to  regulate 
the  conduct  of  all  members  of  the  conununity  are 
mostly  made  by  the  states.  The  states  also  provide 
the  system  of  courts,  a  large  part  of  whose  work  con- 
sists in  the  trial  of  lawbreakers.  The  immediate  task 
of  keeping  order,  of  preventing  crime,  and  of  catching 
criminals  is  left  to  the  locid  conununity.  It  does  this 
work  through  a  police  force. 

The  need  for  a  police  force  was  made  clear  by  what 
happened  in  Boston  in  September,  1919,  when  the 
greater  part  of  the  police  force  went  on  strike.  All 
the  ruffians  and  thieves  at  once  came  out  of  hiding 
and  looted  and  nuirdered  unhindered.  Whole  stocks 
of  goods  were  loaded  in  drays  and  carted  away.  No 
one's  life  and  property  were  safe  until  the  governor 
brought  in  the  militia,  declared  martial  law,  and 
posted  soldiers  in  ever>'  part  of  the  city. 

Policemen  assigned  to  different  duties.  The 
policeman  with  whom  you  arc  most  familiar  is  the 
patrolman  who  walks  his  beat  in  rain  or  shine  and 
sees  that  order  is  preserved.  \ou  are  familiar,  too, 
with  the  traffic  police  men  and  with  the  motorcycle 
officers,   who   enforce  the  laws  against  automobile 

139 


140  Loyal  Citizenship 

speeding.  Less  familiar  are  the  pkuii-clolhes  men, 
who  keep  in  touch  with  those  classes  of  people  among 
whom  crime  is  most  likely  to  occur  and  who  detect 
crime  or,  if  possible,  prevent  it.  They  are  not  the 
romantic  creatures  that  you  read  about  in  detective 
stories.  They  have  no  marvelous  powers  of  reasoning 
such  as  those  which  Conan  Doyle  describes  in  "  Sher- 
lock Holmes."  But  by  visiting  pawnshops  and  sec- 
ondhand stores  to  secure  information,  and  by  mak- 
ing use  of  the  records  that  are  kept  in  the  bureau 
of  identification,  they  manage  to  make  a  surprising 
number  of  captures. 

The  bureau  of  identification.  The  bureau  of 
identification  is  one  of  the  most  interesting  features 
of  the  police  department.  Here  are  kept  records, 
including  photographs,  of  all  persons  who  are  arrested 
for  serious  offenses  (felonies) .  These  records  include 
what  are  known  as  the  BeriiUon  cards,  on  which  are 
noted  the  height  and  weight,  the  length  and  thick- 
ness of  the  head,  and  many  other  measurements  of 
arrested  persons.  More  important  still  are  the  finger- 
print records.  Science  has  discovered  that  the  minute 
lines  on  the  tips  of  one's  fingers  never  change,  and 
that  they  are  never  alike  in  two  people;  so  finger 
prints  are  an  absolute  means  of  identification.  Rec- 
ords are  exchanged  with  the  police  departments  of 
other  cities  and  with  state's  prisons,  so  that  in  a  good 
bureau  a  great  many  thousands  of  cards  are  on  file. 
When  a  person  is  accused  of  crime  it  becomes  much 
easier,  if  a  record  of  him  is  found,  to  trace  his  move- 
ments and  to  determine  whether  or  not  he  is  guilty ; 


Police  and  Fire  Protection 


ill 


Fig.  61.    Aluking  a  finger-print  record  ut    i  jkI 
rogues'  gallery  at  the  left. 


Note  the 


also,  the  police  may  be  able  to  deteniiine  whether  or 

not  lie  is  being  souglit  for  crime  commitlcd  cisewliere. 
Police  organization.  At  the  head  of  tlie  police 
department  in  most  large  cities  is  a  civilian  police 
commissioner  or  a  board  of  cortiniissioners.  (>ither  ap- 
pointed 1)\  llie  mayor  or  ehn'ted  b\  tlie  people.  (The 
head  of  the  police  department  is  appointed  by  the 
governor  of  the  state  in  the  cases  of  St.  Louis.  Bos- 
ton, Baltimore,  Kansas  City,  Missouri,   and  a  few 


142  Loyal  Citizenship 

other  cities.)  A  board  of  police  commissioners  has 
usually  not  worked  well,  and  to  elect  its  members 
is  clearly  a  violation  of  the  short-ballot  principle. 
Below  the  civilian  head  of  the  department  comes  a 
chief  of  police,  who  is  a  member  of  the  uniformed 
force.  Below  the  chief,  the  force  is  organized  in  a 
military  manner  with  captains,  lieutenants,  and  ser- 
geants. Large  cities  are  divided  into  precincts,  each 
of  which  is  usually  in  charge  of  a  captain.  In  smaller 
cities  the  organization  is  much  simpler,  and  the  chief 
of  police  is  generally  the  head  of  the  department. 

Personnel.  A  pohceman,  of  course,  should  be 
strong,  brave,  honest,  and  intelligent.  Patrohnen, 
especially,  should  be  good  natured  and  obliging, 
so  that  they  may  be  on  good  terms  with  the  law- 
abiding  people  on  their  beats.  Detectives  and  iden- 
tification officers  need  shrewdness  and  special  train- 
ing in  their  duty.  The  selection  of  officers  is  clearly 
a  very  important  thing.  Men  should  not  be  made 
policemen  because  they  have  served  or  will  serve 
some  political  boss.  Personal  favoritism  should  have 
no  place  in  a  police  department.  Competitive  mental 
and  physical  examinations  furnish  the  only  safe 
method  to  determine  who  shall  be  policemen.  Most 
large  cities  use  this  method,  but  not  always  very 
carefully  and  thoroughly. 

The  very  best  men  obtainable  are  required  for  such 
important  duties  as  those  of  policemen.  The  men 
should  be  paid  good  salaries,  given  reasonable  hours 
of  work,  and  treated  on  all  hands  in  such  a  way  that 
good  and  capable  men  will  want  to  join  the  force. 


Police  and  Fire  Protection 


li:i 


Fire  protection.  Fire  constitutes  a  danger  to  life 
and  property  that  is  just  as  real  as  the  dangers  against 
which  the  jmlice  protect  us.  The  aimual  fire  loss  in 
the  United  States  is  about  $215,000,000,  and  the 
annual  cost  of  insurance  and  of  keeping  up  fire  de- 
partments is  as  much  more.  Fire  constitutes  one  of 
our  greatest  national  irastes.  We  have  in  the  United 
States  by  far  the  best  fire  departments  and  also  the 
largest  fire  losses  in  the  world. 

The  success  of  a  fire  department  depends  upon  its 
swiftness.  Its  greatest  triumphs  are  not  won  at  the 
big  spectacular  blazes,  but  in  the  fires  it  puts  out  dur- 
ing their  first  five  minutes.  The  organizat  ion  of  a  fire 
department  must  be  so  arranged  that  there  will  be 


Amrrican-I.a  France  Fire  Enginr  Co.,  Inc. 

Fig.  65.    \  piocp  of  inndorn  firo  nppanitus.  a  punipinf;  onpino  iisiiif: 
gasoline.    Tho  motor  wlii<li  propels  the  car  ptiin|)s  the  wafer. 


144 


Loyal  (dtizenship 


Fig.  66.  Carelessness  like  this  makes  our  fire  Iosm'.s  the  largest  in  the 
world.  Note  the  cigar  and  the  mass  of  paper  which  a  spark  might  set 
on  fire. 

competent  superior  officers  in  charge  at  every  fire. 
Its  discipline  must  be  so  perfect  that  the  chief  can 
send  his  men  and  apparatus  here  and  there  as  a 
general  does  the  units  of  his  army. 

The  chief  of  the  fire  department  is  usually  ap- 
pointed by  the  mayor,  manager,  or  commission,  as 
the  case  may  be.  In  most  of  the  large  cities  firemen 
are  appointed  on  the  basis  of  an  examination.  In 
some  cities  there  is  a  civilian  head  {commissioner  or 
board  of  commissioners)  above  the  chief. 


Police  and  Fire  ProlecUon  1  I  •') 

Fire  prevention.  Tlic  old  s;i\iii^'  that  an  ounce  ()!' 
prevention  is  worlli  a  |)oiin(l  oi"  cure  applies  nowhere 
better  than  it  does  lo  fire  control.  'Ihe  most  in»j)or- 
tant  })oint  in  fifilitin^^  fire  is  lo  see  thai  H  never  slaris. 

To  lessen  fires,  hiiildiiKj  lairs  should  prohibit  the 
erection  of  buildings  that  may  readily  catch  fire  and 
so  menace  neifj;!! boring  property.  The  more  thickly  a 
neighborhood  is  built  up,  the  more  strict  the  l)uilding 
laws  should  be.  There  should  also  be  laws  regulating 
such  matters  as  electric  wiring  and  the  location  of 
steam  engines  and  boilers. 

A  great  deal  can  be  done  toward  fire' prevent  ion  by 
simply  taking  care.  Every  one  can  help  nmch  in 
keeping  down  the  fire  menace  if  he  will  observe  the 
following:  see  that  every  match  is  out  before  it  is 
disposed  of;  be  careful  about  lighting  fires;  allow 
no  papers  and  rags  to  accumulate  under  stairs  and 
in  closets;  and  do  not  pack  away  rags  soaked  with 
paint  or  linseed  oil  (Fig.  66). 

The  rural  community.  In  thickly  settled  rural 
communities  where  the  people  are  well-to-do  and  the 
roads  are  good,  efforts  are  sometimes  made  to  provide 
fire  proieclion.  Such  efforts  have  been  greatly  aided 
by  the  construction  of  light  fire  apparatus  mounted 
on  auto  bodies.  But  a  great  deal  more  can  be  done 
toward  providing  rural  fire  protection  than  has  yet 
been  attempted. 

Rural  police  protection  is  in  the  hands  of  the 
sherifT  and  his  deputies  and  of  the  town  or  township 
constable.  The  sheriff  and  his  de])uties  coniine 
themselves  almost  altogether  lo  hunling  for  irimiiials 


146  Loyal  Citizenship 

after  crime  has  been  committed.  The  constable  is 
paid  very  Httle.  He  is  usually  elected  by  the  people 
and  cannot  be  expected  to  be  trained  for  his  task.  He 
does  his  best.  Fortunately,  the  conditions  of  rural 
life  are  such  that  police  protection  is  almost  un- 
necessary. 

In  Pennsylvania  and  several  other  states  the  state 
government  maintains  a  small  but  well-trained  force 
(called  constabulary  in  Pennsylvania)  which  is  used  to 
maintain  order  where  the  local  authorities  are  not 
able  to  do  so.  It  is  more  like  a  body  of  soldiers  than 
a  police  force  and  is  particularly  useful  in  checking 
riots. 

QUESTIONS 

What  does  the  average  American  boy  think  of  a  policeman?  Why? 
What  lesson  can  we  draw  from  the  Boston  police  strike?  What  are 
the  duties  of  patrolmen,  traffic  officers,  and  detectives?  What 
methods  does  a  real  police  detective  use?  How  do  they  differ  from 
those  of  Sherlock  Holmes?  What  is  an  identification  bureau? 
What  are  Bertillon  cards?  Why  are  finger  prints  valuable?  How 
does  the  identification  bureau  help  to  prevent  and  punish  crime? 
How  is  a  police  department  usually  organized?  What  qualities 
should  a  poh'ceman  possess?  How  should  he  be  selected?  How 
great  is  the  annual  fire  loss  of  the  United  States?  How  does  the  cost 
of  insurance  and  the  upkeep  of  fire  departments  compare  with  the 
cost  of  actual  losses  by  fire?  In  what  case  does  the  fire  department 
render  the  most  valuable  service?  What  part  do  building  laws  play 
in  fire  prevention?  How  can  you  help  in  fire  prevention?  What  can 
a  rural  community  do  for  fire  protection?  What  police  protection  is 
there  in  a  rural  community? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  police  and  fire  departments  of  your  own  city,  including  their 
organization  and  equipment.  See  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  City 
Government;  Munro,  W.  B.,  Principles  and  Methods  of  Municipal 
Administration;   and  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions  of  American 


Police  and  Fire  Prulectiun  I  IT 

Government,  Chtiptcr  29  for  Uio  police  depart iiienl  and  pages  164- 
167  for  the  fire  department. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Fire  prevention  gives  an  opj)ortiinity  to  do  sometfiing  directly  of 
civic  value.  The  class  might  well  get  the  chief  of  the  local  lire  deparl- 
ment  or  one  of  his  assistants  to  give  a  talk  on  how  to  keep  fires  from 
getting  started.  The  students  can,  in  a  way,  l)ecome  junior  memhers 
of  the  fire  department  to  help  save  the  community  from  loss.  They 
may  carry  out  suitable  assignments  from  the  fire  chief,  such  as 
investigating  conditions  that  may  cause  fires. 

An  opportunity  for  usefulness  is  sometimes  to  be  had  in  connection 
with  the  police  department.  In  several  cities,  as  at  Berkeley,  Cali- 
fornia, under  Chief  August  Vollmer,  the  "junior  police"  idea  has 
worked  satisfactorily. 

A  visit  to  the  identification  bureau  of  the  police  department  will 
be  very  interesting. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-ONE 
Preservation  of  Health 

The  community  and  health.  Disease  is  far  more 
destructive  than  fire  and  crime,  and  it  is  more  difficult 
to  protect  the  public  against  it.  Until  very  recently, 
so  little  was  known  of  the  cause  of  disease  that  it  was 
regarded  as  a  visitation  of  Providence  impossible  to 
avoid.  Such  medical  science  as  there  was  devoted 
itself  exclusively  to  effecting  cures.  But  gradually, 
through  science,  we  have  learned  the  causes  of  the 
common  diseases.  We  have  learned,  too,  that  many 
of  them  are  preventable  by  simple  means.  Conse- 
quently, almost  every  community  now  has  a  depart- 
ment whose  business  it  is  to  guard  the  public  health. 

Personal  health.  To  do  his  best  for  his  country, 
a  citizen  must  have  health,  and  the  matter  of  keeping 
well  is  largely  in  his  own  control.  Fresh  air,  exercise, 
cleanliness,  careful  eating,  freedom  from  bad  habits, 
and  plenty  of  sleep  are  a  few  of  the  fundamentals 
of  health  which  most  people  can  secure  for  them- 
selves. It  is  not  good  citizenship  to  make  oneself  a 
burden  upon  the  community  through  avoidable  illness. 

Contagious  diseases.  There  are  diseases  from 
which  no  amount  of  precaution  on  the  part  of  the  in- 
dividual can  entirely  protect  him.  Here  the  com- 
munity, through  its  public-health  organization,  steps 
in  to  do  what  the  individucd  cannot  do.  Science  has 
made  marvelous  progress  in  tracing  the  causes  of  con- 
tagious or  transmissible  disease,  and  in  eradicating 
those  causes.  For  example,  it  was  shown  that  the 
bacillus  of  yellow  fever  is  transmitted  only  by  a 

148 


Preservulioti  of  HeuUh 


.\mrrir(in  Miifcum  nf  S<it.  IIi.il. 

Fig.  67.  Fight int:  mosquitoes  by  sprayiiiti  oil  or  <)thiT  liirvicide  over 
the  pools  in  which  they  breed.  Where  it  is  {X)ssil)le  to  do  so,  siieb 
marshy  places  should  be  drained. 

particular  kind  of  mosquito;  and  l)y  destroying  that 
mosquito  yellow  fever  has  been  practically  done  away 
with.  The  bacillus  of  malaria,  too,  is  known  to  be 
carried  by  another  mosquito.  By  destroying  the 
larva;  of  mosquitoes  in  the  marshy  breeding  places  a 
great  deal  has  been  done  to  prevent  malaria  (Fig.  67). 
Quarantine.  A  great  many  diseases  are  trans- 
mitted almost  altogether  by  contact  either  directly 
with  a  diseased  person  or  with  food  or  drink  that  he 
has  touched.  Every  elTort  is  made  by  the  hcahh 
authorities  to  quarantine  persons  known  to  have  con- 
tagious disease.  It  is  the  duly  of  even,'  physician  to 
report  cases  of  contagious  disease  to  the  health 
department  of  his  community,  and  it  is  the  duty  of 


150'  Loyal  Citizenship 

every  citizen  to  submit  willingly  to  the  inconveniences 
■  of  quarantine. 

Unfortunately,  it  is  not  always  easy  to  tell  when  a 
person  ought  to  be  quarantined.  One  may  have  a 
contagious  disease  so  lightly  as  not  to  be  incon- 
venienced by  it  and  yet  be  a  menace  to  others. 
Sometimes,  too,  the  symptoms  of  a  contagious  dis- 
ease are  so  confused  with  symptoms  of  another 
trouble  as  at  first  to  deceive  the  attending  physician. 

Carriers.  There  are  persons  who,  without  being 
ill  with  a  disease,  are  full  of  its  bacteria.  They  are 
known  as  carriers.  On  the  brig  "  Acme  "  sailing  out  of 
San  Francisco,  one  to  three  cases  of  typhoid  fever 
developed  during  every  voyage.  Neither  the  water 
nor  the  food  supplies  showed  signs  of  infection.  At 
last  an  officer  of  the  California  State  Board  of  Health 
discovered  that  one  of  the  crew  was  a  carrier.  On  the 
ship's  deck  was  a  barrel  of  drinking  water,  with  a  tin 
cup  attached  to  it  by  a  chain.  Every  time  the  carrier 
took  a  drink  his  dirty  thumb  and  forefinger  went  into 
the  cup,  infecting  it. 

Public-health  laboratories.  Every  community 
should  have  a  public-health  laboratory  to  which  doc- 
tors may  send  for  free  analysis  specimens  tctken  from 
suspected  cases.  A  boy  in  the  schoolroom  has  what 
is  apparently  a  bad  cold.  The  laboratory  promptly 
discovers  that  it  is  a  case  of  measles.  He  is  sent  home, 
and  the  class  is  saved  from  an  epidemic  of  measles. 
A  girl  with  a  sore  throat — only  a  little  sore — is  shown, 
by  means  of  an  analysis,  to  have  diphtheria.  Her 
inamediate  exclusion  from  school  perhaps  saves  the 


Preservation  of  Health 


Amrrican  Museum  of  Sat.  Ili.it. 

Fir..  68.  Bactoriolof^isls  making  niirroscopic  examinations  of  spt'ci- 
nicns  for  huhonic  i)lagiie.  Such  oxaminations  arc  made  in  our  seaport 
towns  to  guard  against  the  importation  of  cases  of  infectious  disease. 

lives  of  several  of  her  companions.  It  is  only  through 
the  work  of  Uie  laboralon  that  such  cases  can  be 
promptly  detected  (Fig.  68). 

Drinking  cups,  towels,  and  food.  Common  drink- 
ing cups  and  roller  towels  are  dangerous  as  conveyors 
of  infection.  They  are  forbidden  by  the  laws  of  most 
states,  but  they  still  exist.  Avoid  them.  Further- 
more, always  be  sure  that  your  hands  are  clean  be- 
fore you  handle  food  or  drink  for  yourself  or  others. 
This  simple  precaution  may  prevent  great  misfor- 
tune. 

Vaccination.  There  are  diseases,  particularly 
smallpox  and  lyphoid  fever,  to  which  one  can  be  made 
immune  by  vaccination.     The  I  nited  States  army 


152  Loyal  Citizenship 

vaccinates  all  soldiers  for  both  these  diseases.  Small- 
pox vaccination  is  very  commonly  required  of  all 
school  children.  Many  people  object  to  vaccination, 
but  it  has  played  an  important  part  in  preventing 
disease.  Every  person  who  by  vaccination  secures 
immunity  from  a  disease  protects  not  only  himself 
but  all  those  about  him. 

Progress  in  sanitation.  Modern  methods  of  sani- 
tation have  had  a  great  deal  to  do  with  the  improved 
condition  of  public  health.  At  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century  sewers  were  not  common,  and 
slops  and  garbage  were  disposed  of  as  the  individual 
saw  fit.  Today,  in  every  well-regulated  city  of  any 
size,  there  is  a  complete  system  of  sewers  and  every 
building  must  be  connected  with  it.  There  is  also 
provision  for  the'  collection  of  garbage. 

Sewers  and  sewage  disposal.  Sewers  cost  all 
large  communities  vast  sums  of  money.  They  must 
be  big  enough  to  meet  any  need  that  may  arise,  free 
from  leaks,  and  so  graded  as  to  have  a  natural  flow  or 
else  be  supplied  with  pumps.  The  easiest  method  for 
the  disposal  of  sewage  is  to  let  it  run  into  a  river,  a 
lake,  or  the  sea;  but  rivers  and  lakes  should  not  be 
polluted,  and  oceans  are  not  generally  convenient  of 
access.  The  most  interesting  means  of  disposal  is 
perhaps  the  sewage  farm,  where  the  sewage  is  flowed 
upon  land  and  incidentally  irrigates  and  fertilizes 
the  soil.  Special  soil  and  climatic  conditions  are 
necessary  to  the  success  of  this  plan.  Sometimes 
sewage  is  allowed  to  filter  slowly  through  beds  of  sand 
and  gravel.     This  method  is  very  efl'ective  but  is 


Prcservaliofi  of  Ih'allli  1')'') 

exp(Misivo.  Tlu'  most  coiiiiiioii  means  of  disjjosal  is 
the  septic  tank,  which  is  a  jiood  deal  like  a  \rv\  lar{,'e 
cesspool.  Krcciiicnlly  some  method  of  HI  I  rat  ion  or 
treatment  by  chemicals  is  used  in  coimeclion  >vilh  it. 
Tl  cannot  he  said  that  any  one  of  these  systems  of 
disposal  is  I  lie  best  for  ail  cities.  The  citizen  does 
most  wisely  to  a(hnil  Ihal  lie  knows  nolhin^^  about 
sewage  disposal  and  to  insist  on  the  city  c<illiii(j  m 
competent  eiMjineers  to  advise  as  to  methods. 

Garbage  collection  and  disposal.  In  some  parts 
of  the  country  the  collection  of  garbage  is  still  left  to 
private  scavengers.  Elsewhere  the  city  lets  a  con- 
tract to  a  private  individual  or  comi)any  to  collect  it. 
Neither  method  is  really  satisfactory'.  The  collection 
of  garbage  shoutd  be  conducted  t)y  the  city.  It  is  so 
closely  associated  witli  the  public  healtli  and  comfort 
that  it  camiot  properly  be  left  to  private  hands. 
The  only  motive  should  be  to  collect  all  of  the  gar- 
bage. Private  scavengers  and  contractors  often 
collect  what  is  easy  to  collect  and  neglect  the  rest. 

Garbage  should  be  kept  in  fly-light,  metal  cans, 
and  in  a  section  of  detached  dwellings  it  should  be 
collected  at  least  once  a  week.  In  a  tenement-house 
district  collection  should,  of  course,  be  more  frequent. 
Care  in  handling  garbage  has  a  good  deal  to  do  willi 
community  comfort.  The  refuse  from  stables  should 
be  kept  in  water-tight  and  fly-tight  containers. 
Otherwise  it  becomes  a  breeding  place  for  flies,  and 
flies  are  often  the  bearers  of  disease. 

Garbage  disposal  is  even  a  harder  problem  than 
sewage  disposal.     Some  of  the  methods,  aside  from 


154  Loyal  Citizenship 

dumping  in  an  out-of-the-way  place,  are  feeding  to 
liogs,  burning  ("incineration"),  and  reduction  in 
such  a  way  as  to  save  the  greases  of  which  garbage 
is  largely  made  up.  Local  conditions  must  determine 
which  plan  is  best  for  a  particular  city.  A  great  deal 
of  reclaimable  matter  is  undoubtedly  wasted  in  gar- 
bage. The  vital  point,  however,  is  that  it  should  not 
have  got  into  the  garbage  pail  in  the  first  place.  Thrift 
in  the  home  and  in  hotels  and  eating  places  can  take 
most  of  the  value  out  of  refuse. 

Housing.  A  community,  if  it  is  to  give  all  its 
children  a  fair  chance  in  the  world,  must  see  that 
every  family  has  a  healthy  and  comfortable  place  to 
live.  The  laws  requiring  sanitary  conveniences,  proper 
ventilation,  and  an  abundance  of  light  for  city  dwell- 
ings should  be  strictly  enforced.  In  small  towns 
proper  housing  is  not  necessarily  a  serious  problem, 
since  ground  is  comparatively  cheap  and  there  is 
little  inducement  to  build  dwelling  places  too  close 
together.  But  in  the  big  cities,  great  numbers  of 
people  are  crowded  into  tenements  where  a  whole 
family  will  sometimes  live  in  a  single  room  with  no 
outside  ventilation.  Such  a  condition,  coupled  with 
insufficient  food,  breeds  tuberculosis.  The  conquest 
of  that  disease  depends  upon  community  betterment 
as  well  as  upon  medicine. 

Vigorous  action  by  the  board  of  health  in  con- 
demning unhealthful  buildings  will  help  to  get  rid  of 
the  worst  of  existing  evils.  Good  building  laws  will 
help  a  great  deal  for  the  future. 


Preservation  of  Health  '  155 

Water  supply.  1  hiiik  wliat  would  happen  to  your 
city  if  it  were  deprived  even  for  a  few  days  of  its 
water  supply.  An  abundance  of  w  a  t  cr  is  necessary  to 
cleanliness  and  lieallli  and  to  lilr  itself.  Further- 
more, diseases  sueli  as  lyplioid  and  dysentery  are  fre- 
quently conveyed  by  water,  so  that  /7  is  of  the  utmost 
importance  that  it  lie  pure. 

There  are  two  ways  of  securing  a  supply  of  pure 
water.  One  is  to  seek  an  unpolluted  source:  and  in 
many  parts  of  the  country^  this  means  going  to  a  con- 
siderable distance.  Los  Angeles  brings  its  water 
through  an  aqueduct  209  miles  long.  >sew  York's 
daily  supply  of  500,000,000  gallons  comes  a  distance 
of  110  miles.  Only  the  largest  cities  can  afford  to 
spend  the  vast  sums  necessary'  for  such  works.  If  a 
clean  source  of  supply  cannot  be  secured,  the  water 
must  be  filtered.  In  some  sections  a  sufficient  quan- 
tity of  good  water  can  be  secured  from  w  ells.  W  ater 
is  supplied  in  most  of  the  large  cities  of  the  United 
States  by  the  cities  themselves.  It  is  usual  for  them 
to  charge  a  rate  for  the  water  that  w  ill  pay  all  operat- 
ing expenses  and  cover  the  interest  and  installments 
on  the  principal  of  the  money  invested  in  the  works. 

Milk  supply.  A  supply  of  pure  milk  is  about  as 
essential  as  a  su})})ly  of  pure  water.  It  is  almost  the 
only  food  of  all  children  during  the  first  few  years 
of  life.  As  it  comes  fresh  from  healthy  cows,  it  is 
usually  very  wholesome.  A  city's  milk  supply,  how- 
ever, cannot  come  fresh  from  the  cows.  It  is  from 
twelve  to  forty-eight  iiours  old  before  it  reaches  the 
consumer.      Unless    I  lie    greatest    precautions    are 


156 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  69.  Testing  samples  of  milk  in  a  public-health  laboratory. 
Small  samples  are  taken  from  cans  of  milk  that  are  in  the  hands  of 
distributers.  If  any  sample  is  not  up  to  standard,  the  dairyman  who 
is  responsible  will  be  notified. 


taken  to  keep  it  clean  and  cool,  bacteria  will  multiply 
in  it  until  it  becomes  dangerous  to  infant  life.  Milk  is 
often  Pasteurized — heated  without  boiling — to  get 
rid  of  bacteria.  Many  epidemics  of  typhoid  fever 
have  been  traced  to  infected  milk. 

City  and  sometimes  state  health  departments  in- 
spect dairies  and  see  to  it  that  they  are  run  in  a 
cleanly  manner.  Cows  are  tested  for  tuberculosis, 
and  if  found  diseased  are  in  some  cases  killed.  Sam- 
ples of  milk  are  analyzed,  and  if  they  show  too  many 
bacteria  or  too  small  a  percentage  of  butter  fat,  the 
dealer  is  obliged  to  remedy  the  condition  or  quit 
selling.  In  too  many  places  the  testing  of  dairy 
cattle  is  still  left  to  the  owner's  discretion. 


Preservation  of  Health 


.)i 


Food  inspection.  There  are  many  oilier  foods  lie- 
sides  luilk  that  should  he  inspected  to  prevent  dis- 
ease. Many  dealers  are  too  careless  ahout  exjjosing 
their  fruits,  vegelahles,  and  pastry  to  dust  and  flies, 
and  a  few  who  are  unscrupulous  do  not  hesitate  to  sell 
contaminated  goods  to  unsuspecting  customers. 
Constant  vigilance  on  the  part  of  health  officials  is 
needed  to  prevent  ads  and  remedy  conditions  that 
may  endanger  the  puhlic  health. 

The  health  department.  In  most  American  cities 
there  is  a  board  of  health  serving  without  ])ay.  A  ma- 
jority, at  least,  of  its  members  are  physicians.     By 


P"lG.  TO.  A  scliool  \  i^iliriLT  nurse  cxaniininfi  pupils.  If  she  liruis  t'\f 
trouble,  luionoids.  iiiiVclcd  tonsils,  had  teeth,  or  iiiuler-iiourishiiu-nt. 
she  notes  (his  on  the  child's  health-report  card,  and  measures  are 
taken  to  i^et  the  case  attended  to. 


158  Loyal  Citizenship 

the  laws  of  the  state  it  has  broad  powers  conferred 
upon  it  with  regard  to  quarantine,  vaccination,  en- 
forcement of  sanitary  laws,  and  milk  and  general  food 
inspection.  There  is  also  usually  a  heallh  officer,  who 
is  the  executive  of  the  board.  He  generally  receives 
a  salary  and  has  assistants  in  proportion  to  the  size  of 
the  city.  In  many  states  there  is  a  county  health 
officer,  appointed  by  the  county  board.  Rural  sani- 
tation, however,  has  been  a  good  deal  neglected,  and 
any  effective  rural  health  work  has,  as  a  rule,  been 
conducted  by  state  authorities.  Much  effective 
assistance  has  been  given  to  local  health  authorities 
throughout  the  country  by  the  United  States  Public 
Health  Service. 

QUESTIONS 

Why  is  it  your  duty  to  keep  wellP  To  what  extent  can  you  keep 
yourself  welll*  Name  some  diseases  that  have  been  practically 
stamped  out  by  modern  science.  What  is  meant  by  quarantine? 
What  is  our  duty  with  regard  to  it?  What  are  carriers?  How  does 
a  public-health  laboratory  help  to  prevent  disease?  What  part  do 
drinking  cups  and  roller  towels  play  in  spreading  disease?  What 
do  you  think  about  vaccination?  Why  should  the  community 
require  that  sewer  connections  be  made  to  all  houses?  How  should 
garbage  be  kept?  stable  refuse?  W^hat  can  you  tell  about  methods 
of  sewage  disposal?  Why  should  a  city  consult  engineers  before 
deciding  on  a  method  of  sewage  disposal?  W  hat  can  you  tell  about 
garbage  disposal?  What  relation  have  dark  rooms  to  tuberculosis? 
Why  is  the  water  supply  so  important?  How  can  we  get  a  pure 
supply?  How  important  is  it  to  have  pure  milk?  How  can  we  be 
sure  of  a  pure  supply?  What  has  milk  to  do  with  tuberculosis? 
Why  should  other  foods  be  inspected?  What  is  a  board  of  health?  a 
health  oflicer? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  local  boaird  of  health  and  its  activities;  milk  and  food  regu- 
lations.    The  local  water  supply;    systems  of  sewage  and  garbage 


Preservation  of  Heallfi  139 

disposal,  including,  if  possible,  <ui  analysis  of  iLcir  cost  and  com- 
parisons with  thf  MH'thods  in  use  in  other  places.  .See  Ueaiuj,  C.  A., 
American  City  Covernnwnl;  Munro,  \\  .  li..  Principles  and  Methods 
of  Municipal  Administration;  Allen,  \\  .  II..  (! ivies  and  Ilealtli; 
ZuEBLiN,  C.  A.,  American  Municipal  Prut/rcss  (itevi.sed  Edition). 
The  American  City  and  The  Surve\'  are  lielf)ful  periodicals.  See  the 
numerous  publications  of  the  New  York  Department  of  Health,  the 
Milwaukee  Board  of  Health,  and  the  United  States  Public  Health 
Service;  also  Ritchie,  John  W.,  Primer  of  Sanitation.  Reed,  T.  H.. 
Form  and  Functions  of  American  (iorernmenl.  Chapters  22  and  ."{9, 
covers  the  subjects  touched  upon  in  this  chapter  and  gives  numerous 

references. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Let  the  class  arrange  to  carry  out  some  scheme  whereby  it  can 
help  to  preserve  public  health.  Subjects  for  such  activity  are  the 
following:  The  matter  of  drinking  cups,  washing  facilities,  and  towels 
in  the  school:  handling  of  refuse  from  s<h()ol  lunches;  tracing  milk 
and  water  supplies  of  the  school  and  securing  tests  of  either  or  both; 
a  'swat-the-fly'  campaign;  an  anti-mosquito  campaign.  The.se 
matters  should  be  taken  up  only  with  the  approval  of  the  school 
authorities  and  with  the  advice  of  the  health  department.  A  talk 
by  the  health  officer  or  some  qualified  physician  will  be  helpful,  as 
will  a  visit  to  the  office  and  laboratory  of  the  health  department. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-TWO 
Community  Planning 

The  need  for  planning.  Before  construction  is 
begun  on  a  house  or  a  ship,  complete  plans  are  pre- 
pared so  that  as  the  work  goes  forward  every  bit  of 
material  finds  its  way  to  the  right  place  and  every 
part  of  the  structure  fits  with  every  other  part. 
Your  education,  too,  is  carried  on  in  accordance  with 
a  careful  plan  made  possible  by  years  of  experience. 
It  does  not  just  happen  that  you  take  up  each  sub- 
ject in  the  order  that  you  do.  Indeed,  every  one 
recognizes  that  such  matters  cannot  be  left  to  chance 
or  to  the  whim  of  the  individual  student  or  even  of 
the  individual  teacher.  If  planning  is  necessary  for 
houses,  ships,  and  courses  of  study,  it  must  be  even 
more  necessary  to  the  orderly  growth  of  a  com- 
munity (Fig.  71). 

Street  planning.  Most  American  communities 
were  not  planned.  They  just  grew.  In  many  cities, 
of  which  Boston  may  serve  as  an  example,  the  early 
streets  found  their  way  among  houses  without  any 
scheme  at  all.  So  crooked  were  the  Boston  streets 
that  the  tradition  grew  up  of  their  following  the 
ancient  cowpaths.  In  many  other  cities  all  streets 
have  been  laid  out  on  a  uniform  checkerboard  pattern. 
Sometimes,  as  in  San  Francisco,  the  checkerboard 
deisign  is  laid  down  on  a  rough,  hilly  surface,  so  that 
some  streets  are  bound  to  be  practically  useless  be- 
cause of  the  impossible  grades.  The  Boston  "cow- 
paths"  are  better  because  they  follow  the  contour 
of  the  hills. 

160 


Conimufi ily  I Uatui ukj 


61 


162  Loyal  Citizenship 

It  always  happens  that  traffic  congests  in  the  busi- 
ness district  when  a  checkerboard  city  grows  large. 
Sometimes  diagonal  streets  have  to  be  cut  through,  at 
vast  expense,  to  relieve  this  congestion.  A  diagonal 
street  is  always  a  busy  one  because  it  is  a  shorter  way 
to  more  places  than  other  streets.  The  best  exempli- 
fication of  this  truth  is  Broadway,  New  York.  The 
checkerboard  design  leaves  no  suitable  place  for  the 
display  of  fine  public  buildings  and  is  an  obstacle  to 
the  beautifying  of  the  city  (Fig.  72). 

Community  preparedness.  There  has  been  almost 
no  community  planning  in  the  broader  sense,  which 
includes  making  provision  for  such  important  mat- 
ters as  parks  and  playgrounds,  school  grounds  and 
buildings,  means  of  transportation,  and  housing. 
Plans  must  be  made  with  future  needs  in  mind,  or 
growth  will  find  the  community  unprepared.  New 
York,  growing  without  a  plan,  got  to  be  a  great, 
crowded  city  without  playgrounds.  It  then  dis- 
covered that  it  needed  playgrounds  and  paid  millions 
of  dollars  for  a  few  small  tracts  in  its  tenement-house 
districts. 

Parks  and  playgrounds.  The  health  and  happi- 
ness of  many  city  people  depend  largely  upon  the 
opportunities  for  outdoor  recreation  that  are  fur- 
nished by  the  city.  Our  earliest  parks  were  nothing 
more  than  the  common  cow  pastures.  The  beautiful 
and  dignified  Boston  Common  is  perhaps  the  best 
example  of  a  park  of  such  origin.  It  was  not  until  the 
middle  of  the  nineteenth  century  that  our  cities 
began  to  acquire  parks  on  a  large  scale.     Central 


Community  Plaiiniiui 


16:i 


164  Loyal  Citizenship 

Park  was  bought  by  New  York  in  1853,  and  since 
then  ahnosl  every  other  large  city  has  acquired  at 
least  one  important  park.  In  recent  years  many  of 
the  large  cities  have  acquired  extensive  reservations 
in  the  outlying  parts  of  the  city,  or  even  outside  the 
city  limits,  and  have  united  them  into  a  consistent 
system  of  parks.  Kansas  City,  Missouri,  for  ex- 
ample, has  a  remarkably  complete  system  of  parks 
and  drives. 

It  has  been  found,  how  ever,  that  parks  situated  in 
the  outlying  parts  of  the  city,  which  must  be  reached 
by  a  long  street-car  ride  or  by  automobile,  do  not 
meet  the  needs  of  the  mass  of  the  people.  In  the  last 
few  years  great  progress  has  been  made  in  providing 
open  spaces  in  the  thickty  populated  parts  of  cities. 
These  open  spaces  are  not  altogether  laid  off  in  beau- 
tiful flower  beds  and  law  ns,  but  are  very  largely  de- 
voted to  playground  purposes.  There  are  now  up- 
ward of  a  thousand  cities  that  furnish  supervised 
play  for  children  on  such  grounds. 

The  most  thoroughgoing  and  complete  system  of 
playgrounds  and  recreation  centers  has  been  estab- 
lished in  Chicago.  At  these  centers  there  are  not  only 
opportunities  for  football,  baseball,  tennis,  basket 
ball,  gymnasium  work,  and  swinmiing,  but  there  are 
also  recreation  houses  in  which  are  located  branches 
of  the  public  library,  lunchrooms,  and  clubrooms 
for  many  different  organizations.  It  is  reaUy  won- 
derful to  think  that  in  the  midst  of  aU  the  hurly-burly 
of  our  cities  such  provisions  have  been  made  for  the 
development  of  real  community  life.     Every  com- 


(U)iuimmHy  Planning 


103 


riayijround  and  Recreation  Assn.  of  America 


Fk;.  73.    Seward  Park,  oiio  of  Chicago's  modern  playtrrouiids  and 
coiimmnit  V  centers. 


munity,  even  if  it  does  not  need  parks  and  play- 
grounds now,  ought  to  plan  for  the  future  hy  acquir- 
ing the  land  for  them  while  it  may  be  obtainable  at 
reasonable  prices. 

Civic  beauty.  The  character  of  a  city  is  in  a  large 
measure  expressed  by  its  streets,  parks,  and  public 
buildings.  If  these  are  what  they  should  be.  they 
stimulate  people  to  a  clearer  understanding  of  com- 
nmnity  life.  Some  persons  can  never  see  why  more 
money  should  be  spent  on  a  school  building  than  is 
sufficient  to  keep  out  the  weather.  They  are  wrong. 
A  beautiful  school  building  helps  to  make  citizens 
better  by  keeping  constantly  before  their  eyes  a 
visible  expression  of  the  dignity  and  worth  of  the  com- 
munity.    It  is  the  duty  of  each  citizen  to  do  ever)- 


166 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Amertcan  Muitunt  nj    \  n    lii^i 

Fig.  74.    A  city  back  yard  as  it  was  found  by  six  public-spirited 
schoolboys. 


American  Museum  of  Nat.  Hist. 

Fig.  75.   The  yard  shown  in  Figure  74  as  the  six  boys  left  it.   The 
yard  was  benefited  and  so  were  the  boys. 


Community  PkuiniiKj 


167 


lUirnhnm,  (itrrrre,  and  Bnintu' 


Fio.  76.  Th(>  r.|(>v("liuKl  civic  center  its  j)liinii("(l.  In  the  forcf^roiincJ 
is  the  roof  of  tht>  [jroposcd  I'nictn  Passcnf^cr  Station.  Ilic  [)riiicipal 
public  huihlinjjs  arc  to  he  f,'roiijti'(l  about  a  park.  In  furtherance  of 
this  e.xceilent  plan,  a  jiood  deal  of  land  has  hec-n  cleared  of  old  build- 
ings and  some  new  buildings  have  be<'n  erected. 

tiling  in  liis  power  to  preserve  and  increase  the  beauty 
of  his  city.  Young  people  can  do  much  toward  keep- 
ing up  the  appearance  of  a  town  by  seeing  to  it  that 
their  yards  are  tidy,  caring  for  lawns,  and  never 
throwing  litter  in  the  streets  or  parks. 

The  civic  center.  In  every  city  the  principal 
public  buildings  should  be  grouped  with  reference  to 
an  open  area — a  civic  center — where  the  citizens  may 
meet  for  public  purposes.  Wherever  possible,  this 
civic  center  should  be  approached  by  wide  radiating 
streets  down  which  vistas  of  beautiful  buildings  may 
be  seen.  Even  a  small  town  may  have  its  square  or 
green,  made  beautiful  with  w ide-spreading  trees. 

Housing.  Every  city  has  building  laws  which  are 
designed  to  protect  the  health  of  occupants  of  build- 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig. 


17.    A  model  of  the  Roman  Forum  in  its  present  condition.  The 
held  and  the  fate  of  men  and  nations 


iiigs  and  to  guard  against  the  danger  of  fire.  These 
laws,  however,  can  never  solve  the  housing  problem. 
Men  with  money  to  invest  must  be  induced  to  build  good 
homes  for  working  people.  New  York  State  now  has 
a  law  under  which  municipalities  may  encourage  the 
building  of  dwelling  places  tlu^ough  a  remission  of 
taxes.  This  measure  was  meant  to  be  a  temporary 
one.  The  wisdom  of  giving  such  direct  aid  to  private 
enterprise  and  of  remitting  taxes  is  open  to  serious 
question. 

The  matter  of  assuring  proper  housing  conditions 
may  be  greatly  simplified  by  right  city  planning.  A 
city  may  be  so  laid  out  that  there  will  be  many  short 
lots  on  which  it  will  be  impossible  to  build  long,  airless 
tenement  houses. 

Zoning.  No  one  would  like  to  have  a  soap  factory 
or  a  laundry  established  very  near  his  home.     Yet 


Cornniiin ily  Plan n ing 


6<) 


Mdropotilan  Museum  of  Art 

Forum  was  the  civic  center  of  ancient   Rome.    Here  elections  were 
was  decided  by  the  Roman  people. 

such  things  frequently  happen,  and  as  a  result  much 
good  residence  property  loses  value.  In  almost  every 
city  there  are  \vhal  are  called  hVujIded  disfricls.  spoiled 
for  residence  purposes  by  the  coming  of  a  railroad 
line  or  factories  and  not  yet  needed  for  business 
purposes.  Then,  loo,  there  may  be  ver>^  great  loss  of 
efficiency  in  the  hit-and-miss  location  of  industries. 
There  must  be  places  in  every  conununity  that  are 
especially  well  adai)ted  for  industries.  Inisiness 
houses,  hotels,  apartments,  or  large  or  small  resi- 
dences. By  zoning  is  meant  the  setting  apart  of  each 
district  of  the  city  for  its  particular  best  use.  Zoning 
ordinances  have  been  adopted  in  only  a  few  localities, 
but  much  attention  is  being  given  to  the  subject. 
There  is  no  more  important  phase  of  city  plaiiiiiiig 
than  this  one  of  zoning,  the  ()l)jecl  of  whicli  is  to  get 
the  most  for  ever>  purpose  of  hfe  out  of  llic  city's  site. 


170  Loyal  Citizenship 

Transportation.  City  growth  is  dependent  upon 
transportation,  and  right  city  planning  is  necessary 
to  secure  the  best  facihties  for  transportation. 
The  correct  location  of  railroad  lines,  especially  of 
their  stations  for  freight  and  passengers,  is  very  im- 
portant. Where  there  is  a  river  or  harbor,  its  im- 
provement by  deepening  or  widening  the  channel 
and  providing  suitable  docks  and  wharves  may  vastly 
increase  the  prosperity  of  the  city.  Los  Angeles, 
situated  eighteen  miles  from  the  sea,  has  spent 
millions  in  developing  a  harbor  for  ocean-going  ves- 
sels and  has  annexed  a  strip  of  territory  to  connect 
the  city  with  its  port.  Means  of  transporting  people 
from  their  homes  to  their  work  are  absolutely  neces- 
sary in  any  really  large  city.  Good  street-car  service 
at  reasonable  rates,  by  extending  the  area  within 
which  people  may  live,  helps  to  avoid  overcrowding 
and  so  to  lessen  the  housing  problem. 

QUESTIONS 

Why  are  plans  necessary  for  every  big  piece  of  work?  Have 
American  cities  generally  been  planned?  What  can  you  say  about 
some  of  the  early  streets  in  Boston?  What  criticism  can  you  give  of 
the  checkerboard  plan  for  a  city?  Why  are  diagonal  streets  usually 
busy  streets?  Give  examples.  What  can  you  say  of  the  plan  of 
Washington?  What  is  community  planning  in  the  broader  sense? 
Has  there  been  much  comnmnity  planning  in  the  United  States? 
What  are  some  of  the  consequences  of  failure  to  plan?  What  limits 
are  there  to  the  usefulness  of  outlying  parks?  AA  hat  effect  have 
playgrounds  had  upon  the  conduct  of  children?  What  should  be 
the  community's  pohcy  with  regard  to  acquiring  parks  and  play- 
grounds? What  is  the  relation  between  civic  beauty  and  civic 
loyalty?  What  is  the  value  of  a  civic  center?  W'hat  was  the  civic 
center  of  Rome?  What  use  do  the  Spanish-Americans  make  of  the 
plaza?     How  do  badly  constructed  tenements  contribute  to  the 


Conuniuiily  Plufuiiiuj  171 

spread  of  lubernilosis?  What  are  some  of  the  means  by  which  belter 
housing  conditions  ran  be  secured:'  What  elft'ct  may  the  shape 
and  size  of  lots  liave  on  liousing?  What  is  the  result  of  putting  a 
factory  in  the  heart  of  a  residence  district?  What  is  meant  by 
zoning?  What  trans[)()rtali()n  needs  must  he  piaruicd  for  in  a 
conmuinitN .' 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  topics  suggested  by  this  chapter  are  almost  endless,  including 
street  plans,  park  systems,  playgrounds,  civic  centers,  housing,  and 
zoning.  These  topics  .should  be  considered  with  j)articular  reference 
to  your  own  city.  Good  material  illustrating  this  chapter  may  be 
found  in  Bkard,  C.  A.,  Anieriran  Cily  Gurcrniurnl;  Minho,  W.  B., 
Principles  and  Mrtliodfi  of  Municipal  Adrninislralion;  Howe,  F.  C, 
The  Modern  Cily  and  Its  Problems;  Zi  fbi.in,  C,  American  Municipal 
Progress;  Nolen,  John,  lieplanninrj  Small  Cilies;  Addams.  Jane, 
The  Spiril  of  Youth  and  the  City  Streets;  Riis,  Jacob,  The  Children 
of  the  Tenements  and  IIoiv  the  Other  Half  Lives;  Kokster.  Frank, 
Modern  City  Planning  and  Maintenance;  Robinsoiv,  C.  IVI.,  Tfie 
Improvement  of  Towns  and  Cities;  The  Sun^ey;  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form 
and  Functions  of  American  Government,  Chapters  29  and  39. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 
The  class  will  be  interested  in  doing  what  it  can  toward  beautifying 
the  conuiiunity.  If  a  garden  or  back-yard  contest  can  be  arranged 
in  which  a  small  prize  is  offered  for  the  best  work,  it  will  greatly 
stimulate  interest.  This  may  be  done,  perhaps,  with  the  assistance 
of  the  Rotary  Club,  Chamber  of  Commerce,  or  a  sinnlar  organization. 
The  class  should  be  ready  to  take  action  against  any  of  its  members 
who  throw  j)aper  or  refuse  about  the  school  yard  or  damage  the 
school  building.  Similarly,  it  should  conmiend  those  who  are 
conspicuous  in  preserving  \hv  ticMnessof  the  school  yard  and  building. 
Some  of  th(^  members  of  the  class  may  wish  to  form  a  civic  camera 
club  to  take  photographs  of  places  that  do  credit  to  the  community 
and  places  that  need  improvement. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-THREE 
Public  Utilities 

Public-utility  monopolies.  Since  an  abundance  of 
pure  water  is  necessary  to  public  health,  cities  have 
from  early  times  taken  great  precautions  to  make  sure 
of  their  supplies  of  water.  Ancient  Rome  was  served 
by  a  wonderful  system  of  aqueducts.  During  the 
last  century  gas,  water,  street-railway  transporta- 
tion, and  telephone  service  have  also  become  essen- 
tial (Fig.  78).  All  these  services  are  known  as  public 
utilities:  first,  because  they  are  necessary  to  so  many 
people,  and  second,  because  they  are  supplied  by 
means  of  pipes,  poles,  wires,  or  rails  which  are  con- 
ducted through  the  public  streets. 

The  right  to  use  the  streets  for  public-utility  pur- 
poses is  known  as  a.  franchise.  Poles,  rails,  and  wires 
are  not  in  themselves  desirable  in  public  streets. 
The  less  of  them  the  better  after  the  necessary  ser- 
vice has  been  provided  for.  It  has,  therefore,  been 
unusual  to  allow  two  or  more  utilities  serving  the 
same  end  to  occupy  the  same  street.  This  means 
that  the  holder  of  a  franchise  usually  has  the  exclusive 
right  to  furnish  a  particular  form  of  service  to  the  public. 
The  individual  can  do  nothing  by  himself  to  control 
the  quality  or  price  of  these  services.  Competition 
cannot  be  depended  on  as  a  regulator.  It  is  not 
strange,  therefore,  that  the  public-utility  problem  is 
often  a  serious  one.  Since  we  cannot  do  without 
these  utilities,  the  community  must  either  control 
them  or  own  and  operate  them. 

172 


Public  LtiUlies 


173 


Am.  Til.  and  Tel.  Co. 

Fig.  78.  "Weaversof  Spocch.  "  Tin- work  of  olliio,  farrn.  and  factory 
could  hardly  go  on  without  the  ti'li'phonc.  the  public  utility  which 
has  made  of  the  United  Stales  a  compact  cotruuunits. 

Public  ownership.  Many  persons  believe  that  it 
is  wroii^'  to  maul  to  any  individual  or  corporation  an 
exc'hisive  right  to  tlie  use  of  a  piibhc  street.  1  hey 
hold  that  all  public  utilities  should  be  owned  and 
operated  by  the  coinnuniity.  Other  persons  beheve 
that  pul)lic  ownership  and  operation  should  never  be 
undertaken  so  long  as  private  enter{)rise  can  supply 
the  service.  They  argue  that  ])iiblic  ownership  and 
operation  will  bring  careless,  inellicient.  and  corrupt 
managenii'iil;  liiat  jobs  will  be  used  to  strengthen 
the  power  of  party  machines;  and  that  taking  "util- 
ities" away  from  private  ownership  unwisely  limits 
the  opportunities  for  private  enterprise.  Each  side 
is  partly  right  and  partly  wrong. 

Private  enterprise  has  given  us  many  utilities  that 
would  never  have  Ix'cit  begun  with  public  finids  be- 


174 


Loyal  Citizenship 


cause  of  the  risk  of  loss.  On  the  other  hand,  pubHc 
ownership  is  often  a  practicable  means  of  handling  a 
public  utility.  It  has  been  proved  by  experience  in 
many  places  that  a  community  can  conduct  an  estab- 
hshed  utihty  without  corruption  and  with  reasonable 
efficiency.  Private  ownership,  however,  is  somewhat 
more  efficient  in  operation;  and  where  a  privately 
owned  utility  is  giving  good  service  at  reasonable 
rates  it  is  unnecessary  to  place  upon  the  conununity 
the  additional  burden  of  running  that  utility.  Where 
there  is  public  ownership,  there  is  little  inducement 
to  invent  new  methods  or  to  adopt  improvements  of 
any  kind. 

The  question  of  pubhc  ownership  should  be  settled 
separately  for  each  utility  in  each  conmiunity.    The 


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Fig.  79.  The  highest  point  on  the  New  York  elevated  railway  sys- 
tem. Elevated  lines,  surface  cars,  and  subways  are  hardly  sufficient 
to  solve  New  York's  transportation  problem. 


Public  Utilities  175 

fundamental  principle  on  which  it  should  be  decided 
is  this,  tliat  freedom  should  be  alloived  to  individual 
enterprise  so  long  as  it  does  not  interfere  with  the  highest 
welfare  of  the  community. 

Water  supply.  Of  all  public  utilities  the  water 
system  is  tiie  one  most  conunonly  owned  and  oper- 
ated by  the  comnmnity.  The  absolute  necessity  of 
the  service,  the  wish  to  keep  the  price  low  so  that  all 
the  people  may  enjoy  the  full  benefit  of  it,  and  the 
imperative  need  for  purity,  are  all  strong  argu- 
ments in  favor  of  public  ownership  and  operation. 
Even  the  business  arguments  are  in  this  case  favor- 
able to  public  ownership.  The  construction  of  a 
great  water-supply  system  is  too  vast  an  undertak- 
ing for  private  capital;  a  reasonable  price  for  water 
would  hardly  allow  an  adequate  return  on  the 
money  invested.  Wliere  waterworks  are  once  con- 
structed, however,  their  operation  is  very  simple, 
requiring  the  employment  of  comparatively  few  men. 
The  importance  of  these  facts  will  be  clearer  if  we 
contrast  water  supply  with  milk  supply,  the  nature 
of  the  dairy  business  being  such  that  public  owner- 
ship and  operation  would  not  be  practical. 

Gas  and  electricity.  Conditions  in  cities  make  the 
supply  of  gas  and  electricity  almost  as  essential  as  the 
supply  of  water.  Electricity  has  largely  taken  the 
place  of  gas  as  a  means  of  lighting,  but  the  use  of 
gas  as  a  fuel  has  vastly  increased  in  recent  years. 
There  have  been  very  few  municipally  operated  gas 
plants  in  this  country,  and  they  have  not  generally 
been  successful.    The  manufacture  of  gas  is  a  some- 


176 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  80.  A  high-tcnsiun  power  line.  U\  er  such  lines,  millions  of  horse- 
power generated  by  the  fall  of  water  are  carried  for  hundreds  of  miles 
to  centers  of  industry. 

what  difficult  and  intricate  chemical  process,  and  it 
requires  a  very  costly  j^lant.  Gas  can  be  economi- 
cally produced  only  on  a  large  scale.  This,  of  course, 
does  not  apply  to  natural  gas.  Where  that  is  avail- 
able, conditions  may  be  different. 

Electric  current  can  be  produced  with  a  fair  degree 
of  economy  in  small  units,  and  a  great  many  of  our 
cities,  especially  the  smaller  ones,  have  adopted  the 
policy  of  supplying  electricity  to  the  public.  Of  late 
years  the  supplying  of  electric  current  has  fallen 
more  and  more  into  the  hands  of  great  corporations 


Public  I  tUitles  177 

which  serve  many  eilies,  and  wliieli  iiianuraelurc  the 
current  eilher  in  large  steam  plants  or  by  the  use 
of  water  power  (Fig.  80). 

Transportation.  Tlie  j)rinci})al  means  of  transpor- 
tation in  American  cities  is  tlie  electric  street  railway. 
From  1890  to  1910  such  lines  were  extensively  built 
all  over  the  country,  and  for  a  while  they  were 
profitable.  But  at  the  beginning  of  the  year  1921 
practically  every  street  railway  in  the  United  States 
was  in  financial  distress.  Higher  fares  usually  mean 
fewer  passengers,  and  although  rates  were  raised  to 
ten  cents  in  Boston  and  to  six,  seven,  or  eight  cents 
in  many  cities,  they  have  only  partly  relieved  the 
situation.  San  Francisco  and  Seattle  have  under- 
taken to  own  and  operate  street-car  lines.  San 
Francisco's  municipal  railway,  operating  under  ex- 
ceptionally favorable  conditions,  has  been  a  financial 
success  and  very  satisfactory  from  the  i)oint  of  view 
of  service.     Seattle  has  not  been  so  fortunate. 

Regulation  of  public  utilities.  There  are  two 
solutions  of  the  public-utility  problem:  one  is  public 
ownership,  the  other  is  strict  public  regulation.  Up 
to  a  few  years  ago  regulation  was  left  entirely  to 
the  local  communities.  In  granting  franchises,  the 
comnnmities  tried  to  provide  for  a  degree  of  control 
by  themselves,  and  they  sometimes  included  pro- 
visions for  low  rates  in  the  franchises.  Some  com- 
panies, however,  did  not  hesitate  to  secure  favorable 
frajichises  by  corrupt  means.  Local  control  was  not 
generally  satisfactory. 

In  recent  years  the  power  of  regulating  rates  and 


178  Loyal  Citizenship 

service  has  been  frequently  intrusted  to  state  public- 
utility  commissions.  These  commissions  first  deter- 
mine the  value  of  the  company's  property,  then  fix  a 
rate  that  will  yield  a  fair  return  upon  that  value. 
Justice  and  common  sense  require  this.  If  a  fair 
return  is  not  allowed,  men  with  capital  will  make  no 
further  investment  in  the  utility.  Up  to  the  entry 
of  the  United  States  into  the  Great  War,  the  commis- 
sions had  been  steadily  reducing  rates.  War  condi- 
tions led  them  to  increase  the  rates  for  many  utilities. 
The  public  were  very  well  satisfied  with  the  rate 
reductions.  The  real  strain  on  the  system  of  com- 
mission regulation  began  with  general  rate  increases. 
If  the  public  loses  confidence  in  the  commissions, 
there  may  be  no  solution  except  public  ownersliip. 

It  must  be  remembered  throughout  all  the  dis- 
cussion of  regulation  and  public  ownership  that  the 
community  cannot  have  the  service  of  any  utility  without 
paying  for  it,  if  not  in  rates  or  fares,  tlien  in  taxes. 

Rural  public  utilities.  There  are  naturally  fewer 
public-utility  enterprises  in  rural  conamunities  than 
in  cities.  But  many  country  districts  Eire  served  with 
water,  electric  light  and  power,  telephone,  and  trolley 
or  auto-stage  lines.  A  rural  community  can,  of 
course,  do  very  little  to  help  itself  either  by  owner- 
ship or  regulation,  because  it  usually  covers  only  a 
small  part  of  the  area  served  by  any  utility.  It  has 
to  depend  on  the  state  for  the  control  of  pubhc- 
utility  companies. 

Some  states  provide  by  law  for  the  creation  of 
districts  comprising  several  towns  or  even  counties 


Public  I  til  Hies 


179 


Reclamation  Scrricc 


Fig.  81.  A  great  irrigation  ditch  on  the  Rio  Grande  project  in  New 
Mexico.  Beyond  the  bridge  are  the  head  gates  for  the  control  of  the 
(low  of  water. 


for  public-utilily  purposes.  In  the  states  of  the  Far 
West  where  water  is  required  for  irrigation,  districts 
are  organized  comprising  all  the  land  to  be  irrigated. 
The  affairs  of  an  irrigation  district  are  managed  by  a 
board  of  directors  elected  by  the  residents  or  prop- 
erty owners  of  the  district,  and  the  cost  of  the 
necessary  works — sometimes  very  large — is  assessed 
against  the  land  benefited.  Similar  districts,  in  otlier 
parts  of  the  country,  provide  for  the  drainage  of 
swamp  lands  and  the  construction  and  maintenance 
of  levees.  By  such  means  portions  of  the  country 
that  would  otlierwise  have  remained  waste  have 
been  made  fertile  and  prosperous. 


.180  Loyal  Citizenship 

QUESTIONS 

Why  are  public  utilities  usually  monopolies?  What  effect  has4his 
upon  the  ability  of  each  individual  to  protect  himself  in  matters  of 
rates  and  service?  What  is  the  chief  argument  for  public  ownership? 
against  it?  Why  is  the  water  system  usually  owned  by  the  public? 
W  by  are  electric-Ught  plants  more  commonly  owned  by  the  public 
than  gas  plants?  Why  have  street-railway  profits  declined?  Are 
these  causes  permanent?  What  had  franchises  to  do  with  corruption 
in  city  politics?  What  will  be  the  test  of  the  success  of  commission 
regulation  of  public  utihties? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  utilities  of  your  own  city;  rates  and  service.  The  regulation 
of  utilities  by  your  own  city  and  state  should  also  be  looked  up  and 
reported  on  to  the  class.  The  material  will,  of  course,  have  to  be 
suggested  by  the  teacher.  On  the  general  subject  see  Beard,  C.  A., 
American  City  Government:  Munro,  W.  B.,  Principles  and  Methods 
of  Municipal  Administration  (on  water  supply);  Howe,  F.  C,  The 
City  the  Hope  of  Democracy;  King,  C.  L.,  The  Regulation  of  Mu- 
nicipal Utilities;  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions  of  American 
Government,  Chapter  26.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  periodical  literature, 
including,  besides  general  magazines,  such  periodicals  as  Annals  of 
the  American  Academy  and  National  Municipal  Review. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

A  debate  on  the  proposition  that  any  one  of  the  local  public  utilities 
should  be  owned  and  operated  by  the  people.  In  rural  schools  the 
subject  may  have  to  be  made  more  general.  Two  pupils  should  be 
assigned  to  the  affirmative  and  two  to  the  negative.  Not  more 
than  eight  minutes  should  be  allowed  to  each  speaker,  with  four 
minutes  for  each  side's  rebutted. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-FOLR 
Charity 

Poverty  and  its  causes.  I'overty  is  one  of  the 
great  problems  ^^ilh  Avhich  government  has  to  deal. 
Its  causes  are  as  numerous  as  the  accidents  and  fail- 
ures of  life  itself.  Great  disasters  like  fires,  Hoods,  or 
earthquakes  always  bring  with  them  a  train  of  mis- 
ery, which  forlunately  is  in  most  cases  temporary. 
Sickness  is  (he  most  prolijic  cause  of  poverty.  Many 
families  spend  all  they  earn  in  order  to  live,  and  even 
a  brief  illness  on  the  part  of  the  head  of  such  a  family 
means  its  reduction  to  want.  The  use  of  alcoholic 
liquors  has  frequently  brought  about  weakness  of 
body  and  mind;  it  has  wasted  the  family  income  and 
at  the  same  time  destroyed  its  earning  power.  Then 
there  are  persons  who,  through  no  fault  of  their  own, 
are  not  competent  to  earn  a  living.  Seasonal  un- 
employment is  a  cause  of  some  poverty,  especially 
during  the  winter,  when  many  outdoor  industries 
are  suspended.  There  is  want,  also,  during  limes 
of  business  depression  when  factories  are  shut 
down. 

Public  poor  relief.  The  burden  of  ])oor  relief  falls 
usually  upon  the  town  or  township  in  states  where 
those  units  are  fully  organized,  and  elsewhere  upon 
the  county.  The  relief  is  administered  either  by 
orerseers  of  the  poor  elected  in  the  town  or  township 
for  this  particular  purpose,  or  by  tiie  county  board. 
The  relief  is  sometimes  furnished  in  supplies  of  food 
and  clothing  or  money.  This  is  known  as  outdoor 
relief.     Otherwise  the  poor  are  taken  care  of  at  a 

181 


182 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Children's  Aid  Society,  New  York 

Fig.  82.  These  anemic  children  were  brought  back  to  health  at 
Goodhue  Home,  New  Brighton,  Staten  Island.  New  York. 

town  or  county  poor  farm,  where  those  who  are  able 
to  work  are  required  to  do  so. 

Associated  charities.  Generally  speaking,  public 
poor  relief  has  not  gone  beyond  the  point  of  reheving 
immediate  necessity.  It  has  done  little  toward  seek- 
ing out  and  removing  the  causes  of  poverty.  The 
same  was  for  a  long  time  true  of  private  charity. 
The  fact  that  a  great  deal  of  money  was  being 
wasted  by  various  charitable  enterprises  covering  the 
same  ground,  and  that  nothing  was  being  accom- 
plished to  remove  the  causes  of  poverty,  led  to  the 
establishment  in  all  considerable  cities  of  organiza- 
tions  usually  known  as   the   Associated   Charities. 


Charity  183 

These  attempt  to  bring  all  charitable  enterprises 
into  harmony  and  to  do  constructive  work.  Asso- 
ciated Charities  workers  investigate  each  case  that 
comes  lo  the  attention  of  the  organization  and  recom- 
mend the  kind  of  help  that  will  most  quickly  make  a 
family  self-supporting. 

Removing  the  causes  of  poverty.  The  community 
has  done  a  great  tleal  lo  remove  the  causes  of  poverty 
in  ways  that  we  do  not  ordinarily  associate  with  poor 
relief.  For  example,  better  housing  means  better 
health  and  less  poverty.  Sickness,  the  chief  cause  of 
poverty,  is  reduced  through  such  measures  as  the 
following:  taking  precautions  to  prevent  the  spread 
of  contagious  diseases;  the  maintenance  of  free 
clinics  and  hospitals  in  which  the  poor  may  be 
promptly  restored  to  health;  the  medical  inspection 
of  school  children;  and  the  removal  of  adenoids  and 
infected  tonsils.  The  abolition  of  the  liquor  traffic 
throughout  the  United  States  has  removed  another 
cause  of  misery  and  want.  The  social-reform  laws 
of  the  last  twenty  years  were  designed  to  strike  at  the 
roots  of  poverty.  These  include  laws  providing 
compensation  for  men  injured  while  at  work,  laws 
regulating  sanitation  in  factories,  eight-hour  laws 
for  women,  and  child-labor  laws. 

The  individual  and  poverty.  It  is  right  that  we 
should  look  upon  poverty  as  a  social  problem  and 
upon  well-directed  public  charity  as  a  means  of 
relieving  it.  But  we  should  remember  that  poverty, 
at  bottom,  is  caused  by  the  imperfect  co(Jperation  of 
the  members  of  the  community.    The  effective  rem- 


184 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Cleveland  Society  for  the  Blind 

Fig.  83.  The  result  of  intelligent  charity.  This  blind  boy  has  been 
taught  to  operate  a  lathe  and  so  has  been  made  self-supporting. 

edy  for  poverty  lies  in  better  cooperation  for  the 
removal  of  its  causes  (Fig.  83).  This  does  not  mean 
that  we  should  stop  helping  individuals  who  are  in 
distress.  In  general,  it  is  those  who  are  most  kindly 
disposed  toward  individual  cases  of  suffering  who 
are  most  ardently  searching  out  and  removing  the 
causes  of  suffering. 


Charily  18.3 


QUESTIONS 

What  ari"  the  principal  causes  of  povertyP  Wfiich  is  the  most 
important  of  these  causes?  To  what  extent  do  you  think  the  causes 
of  poverty  can  be  removed?  By  what  methods?  What  units  of 
local  government  administer  poor  relief  in  the  United  States?  \\hat 
methods  do  they  use?  NN  hat  were  tlie  reasons  for  the  establishment 
of  Associated  Charities?  How  do  they  proceed  when  a  case  comes  to 
their  attention?  \\  hat  is  tlicir  aim  in  the  work  that  they  do?  \\  hat 
criticism  is  made  of  them?  \\  hat  is  the  individual's  duty  with  regard 
to  poverty? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Your  local  charities  and  institutions.  Rc[)(jrts  and  personal  inter- 
views will  have  to  be  the  cliief  means  of  information.  There  is  no 
book  on  the  subject  suitable  for  other  than  ad\ance(l  students.  See 
Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Fniuiiotis  of  American  Government,  Chapter 
30.     T/«'  Surrey  will  prove  a  valuable  source  of  material. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

A  definite  charitable  activity.  A  smidl  committee,  say  of  three, 
from  the  class  may  confer  on  the  subject  with  the  secretary  of  the 
local  Associated  Charities  or  other  charity  workers.  The  conmiittee 
should  visit  the  local  charitable  institutions  and,  if  possible,  should 
visit  with  a  charity  worker  some  of  his  or  her  cases.  The  committee 
should  then  report  to  the  class  and  recommend  a  form  of  charitable 
activity.  The  activity  should  be  within  the  power  of  the  class.  It 
should  be  constructive,  and  the  class  should  be  made  to  reaUze  its 
far-reaching  possibilities. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-FIVE 
Training  Citizens 

Expenses  and  sacrifices  for  education.  The  peo- 
ple of  this  country  spend  over  five  hundred  million 
dollars  a  year  on  education.  In  most  states  children 
are  required  to  go  to  school  for  several  years — usually 
for  a  period  long  enough  to  take  them  through  the 
grammar  grades.  Besides  the  payment  of  taxes, 
parents  make  in  the  aggregate  tremendous  sacrifices 
to  give  their  children  an  education;  and  hundreds  of 
thousands  of  self-sacrificing  men  and  women  devote 
their  lives  to  teaching.  What  is  the  purpose  in  all 
of  this.^  The  purpose  of  the  individual  parent  is  fre- 
quently httle  more  than  to  give  his  children  the  best 
possible  opportunities  in  the  battle  of  life;  but  the 
community  as  such  has  in  mind  the  training  of  citi- 
zens. 

Some  of  the  immediate  purposes  of  education. 
Our  educational  system  aims  to  make  the  citizen 
economically  sufficient — able  to  earn  the  best  living 
and  to  do  the  best  work  of  which  he  is  capable.  By 
offering  commercial,  mechanical,  and  agricultured 
courses,  the  schools  aim  to  give  to  each  pupil  the 
chance  to  prepare  definitely  for  a  calling;  and  the 
knowledge  that  many  girls  and  boys  make  mistakes 
in  choosing  callings  has  given  rise  to  the  study  of 
vocational  selection.  Each  pupil  is  studied,  his  or 
her  capabilities  are  noted,  and  an  attempt  is  made 
to  get  each  one  interested  in  a  suitable  occupation 
(Fig.  84). 

Since  the  maintenance  of  health  plays  such  an  im- 

186 


Training  Citizens 


187 


^^^^^H  tft^^MSP 

IH  i^^l^H^I^HK''' 

mmfm 

OtT  :iijJEg^  n — 

^     WCl 

si 

JloS 

I^^^Cd         ^B^K  y  ^»»\/ y.  jj 

UJq 

■J^^^HiVV       1  "ml^l 

^^^.-'  -^-^g^^^B 

WSm^  .  -' 

^P 

Hhbj 

Fig.  81.    A  class  in  woodworkiiij,'.    Tin- si  lii-ois  t.l   today  ofTer  much 
greater  advantaj^cs  limn  did  the  schools  of  a  generation  ago. 

portant  part  in  success,  schools  give  a  great  deal  of 
attention  to  the  physical  welfare  of  their  students, 
and  to  tliis  end  they  teach  hygiene  and  sanitation, 
promote  athletics,  and  provide  for  the  physical  in- 
spection of  students  and  the  correction  of  the  bodily 
defects  thai  inspection  may  reveal. 

Americanization.  The  fact  that  our  country  has 
been  sought  as  a  lionie  by  millions  of  the  less  fortu- 
nate people  of  Europe  has  created  a  serious  educa- 
tional problem.  Newly  arrived  immigrants  have 
settled  in  great  masses  in  our  large  cities.  In  some 
instances  they  have  settled  whole  sections  of  our 
country.  They  have  had  their  own  newspapers  in 
their  own  language,  and  their  own  schools  in  which 
English,  if  taught  at  all,  was  only  incidental  to  other 


188 


Loyal  Citizenship 


subjects.  When  the  time  came  for  the  United  States 
to  enter  the  Great  War,  most  of  these  people,  from 
whatever  country,  turned  without  hesitation  to  the 
support  of  America.  There  were  enough,  however, 
who  did  not  do  so,  to  make  us  reahze  that  we  had 
been  facing  a  great  danger. 

In  the  United  States  there  can  be  but  one  native 
tongue,  the  Enghsh  tongue,  and  all  teaching  should 
as  far  as  possible  be  carried  on  in  it.  People  who  are 
unlikely  ever  to  become  Americanized  should  be  and 
are  largely  excluded  from  entrance  into  the  United 
States.  The  practice  of  foreigners  of  particular 
nationahties  settling  in  close  groups  of  their  own 
should  be  discouraged. 

Americanization  is  now  being  furthered  by  means 
of  night  schools  for  adults,  with  classes  especially  for 


Fig.  85.   A  night  class  for  adult  aliens.  The  pupils  are  being  taught 
the  procedure  that  is  followed  at  elections. 


Training  Citizens 


189 


American  Museum  of  Sat.  Uist. 

Fig.  86.  School  rhildron  looking  at  tho  fossil  skeleton  of  a  dinosaur, 
an  ancient  lizardlikc  ariiiual,  in  the  American  .Museum  of  Natural 
History,  New  York.  The  museums  of  this  country,  through  their 
in\  estigations,  do  much  for  the  advancement  of  liberal  education. 

foreigners;  through  the  activities  of  patriotic  organi- 
zations thai  })rovi(le  free  inslniclion;  and  by  pubHc 
lectures.  Each  of  us,  individually,  can  aid  in  tliis 
great  work  by  being  as  considerate  of  the  foreigner 
who  is  trying  to  learn  our  ways  as  we  would  have 
him  be  of  us  in  reversed  circumstances.  \Ye  should 
recognize  the  fact  that  men  from  many  nations  have 
helped  to  enrich  our  nationat  life.  Bui  our  country 
has  given  niuch  to  them,  and  for  thai  and  for  its  sclf- 
preservalioii  il  must  have  their  undivided  allegiance. 
We  can  be  tliankful  that  most  of  the  people  who  come 
to  America  to  make  it  their  home  realize  this.     In- 


190 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  87.  The  main  building  of  the  College  of  William  and  Mary  in 
Virginia.  Sir  Christopher  Wren,  the  architect  of  St.  Paul's  Cathedral 
in  London,  designed  the  building.  The  college,  which,  after  Harvard, 
is  the  oldest  one  in  the  United  States,  has  been  training  citizens  since 
1693. 

deed,  it  is  gratifying  and  often  helpful  to  our  native 
citizens  to  hear  some  of  our  newer  citizens  state  the 
very  good  reasons  that  they  have  for  an  unwavering 
loyalty  to  our  country. 

The  social  value  of  education.  The  school  is  our 
chief  agency  for  making  young  citizens  and  many  of 
our  new  citizens  socially  adaptable — willing  to  co- 
operate to  the  highest  degree.  The  Golden  Rule  lies 
at  the  foundation  of  a  useful  social  hfe.  The  educated 
man  knows  thai  the  welfare  of  his  fellowmen  is  insepa- 
rable from  his  own  welfare.  He  has  at  once  a  proper 
sense  of  humihty  with  regard  to  his  personal  merits 
and  a  proper  sense  of  his  dignity  as  a  human  being. 
"Education"  that  simply  makes  a  citizen  more  ca- 
pable in  providing  for  his  material  wants  is  largely 


Training  Citizens  191 

wasted.  Unless  his  capabilities  are  developed  and 
used  for  the  good  of  all,  his  schooHng  has  missed  its 
point. 

To  play  well  his  part  a  citizen  must  not  only  be 
able  to  earn  a  living  but  he  nmst  also  have  a  right 
social  attitude.  He  must  enter  into  the  spirit  of  his 
counlr\'s  traditions  and  purposes  and  have  an 
intelligent  interest  in  its  problems. 

QUESTIONS 

How  iniK  li  do  file  people  of  the  United  States  spend  each  year  on 
education?  Wliat  sacrifices  do  individuals  make  in  the  cause  of 
education?  Why  do  they  make  them?  W  hat  is  meant  hy  economic 
sufhciency?  ^\hat  vocations  do  schools  f)repare  for  directly?  \\  hat 
help  can  a  school  give  in  selecting  callings  for  its  pupils?  What  is 
the  prohlem  of  Americanization?  What  justification,  if  any,  is 
there  for  the  puhlication  in  our  country  of  foreign-language  news- 
papers? for  schools  taught  in  foreign  languages?  \\hat  are  some 
of  the  means  hy  which  Americanization  can  he  effectively  promoted? 
W^hat  is  meant  hy  social  adaptahility?  What  part  should  the  Golden 
Rule  play  in  one's  social  relations?  Why  nmst  you  know  the  frame- 
work of  yoin-  gONcrnmcnt?  Can  you  he  the  most  desirable  kind  of 
citizen  and  not  understand  the  problems  of  the  community? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  various  occupations  open  to  boys  and  girls  in  your  community 
may  each  be  assigned  to  a  pupil  for  investigation.  His  report  should 
cover  such  matters  as  length  and  character  of  preparation,  either  as 
student  or  apprentice,  qualities  of  mind  and  body  required,  oppor- 
tunities in  the  way  of  salary,  and  possible  satisfaction  in  the  work 
itself. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

An  Americanization  exercise.  Some  members  of  the  class  should 
prepare  statements  showing  the  advantages  of  American  citizenship. 
Other  members  should  tell  why  they  or  their  people  chose  this  country 
as  their  home. 

The  class  may  wish  to  {)resent  an  Americanization  pageant  to  the 
whole  school. 


PART  FOUR 

THE  CITIZEN  IN  STATE  AND  NATION 

Liberty  and  Law 


The  State,  as  Aristotle  says,  having  begun 
as  a  means  of  making  Hfe  possible,  continues 
as  a  means  of  making  life  prosperous.  When 
once  the  necessary  basis  of  authority  is  estab- 
lished, that  authority  becomes  with  each 
generation  more  impartial  and  more  absolute, 
protecting  the  laborer  as  well  as  the  soldier 
and  politician. 

Arthur  T.  Hadley 


CHAPTER  TWENTY -SIX 
Constitutional  System 

Colonial  government.  The  settlers  of  the  F^nglish 
colonies  in  North  America  brought  wilh  them  from 
ti)e  mother  country  their  ideas  of  government ;  and 
the  English  Bill  of  Rights  of  1689  fairly  ex]3ressed 
these  ideas.  The  Bill  of  Rights  provided  in  sub- 
stance that  laws  should  be  made  and  repealed  and 
that  taxes  should  be  laid  only  with  the  consent  of  the 
representatives  of  the  people  (Parliament) ;  that  the 
election  of  members  of  Parliament  should  l)e  free, 
and  that  freedom  of  speech  should  prevail  in  that 
body;  that  subjects  had  the  right  to  petition  the 
king;  and  that  excessive  fines  should  not  be  imposed. 
In  each  of  (he  Thirleen  Colonies  there  was  a  represen- 
lalive  body  elected  6y  the  people,  ivhich  made  laws  and 
laid  taxes.  In  all  but  Pennsylvania  and  Delaware 
there  was  an  "upper  house,''  the  members  of  which 
were  usually  appointed  by  the  king.  The  consent  of 
this  upper  house  was  necessary  to  the  making  of  any 
law.  In  each  of  the  colonies  there  was  a  governor, 
usually  appointed  by  the  king,  who  exercised  execu- 
tive pOW(T. 

Early  state  governments.  When  the  War  for 
Independence  began,  it  became  necessary  for  the 
colonies  to  provide  for  their  own  govermnent.  Con- 
necticut and  Rhode  Island,  which  had  enjoyed  a 
very  large  measure  of  self-govermnent  under  liberal 
colonial  charters,  continued  to  use  their  old  charters, 
making  only  a  few  verbal  cluinges.  The  rest  of  the 
states  between  1775  and  1780  adopted  constitutions. 

195 


196  Loyal  Citizenship 

These  constiiiit  ions  specified  how  the  stale  was  to 
be  governed,  and  declared  that  certain  rights  of  the 
citizen  might  not  be  interfered  with.  If  the  legisla- 
ture passed  any  measure  in  conflict  with  the  state 
constitution,  the  courts  would  not  enforce  that 
measure.  The  form  of  govermnent  under  these  con- 
stitutions was  much  like  that  of  colonial  days. 

Articles  of  Confederation.      Colonies  had  some- 
times acted  together  during  the  wars  with  the  French 
and  the  Indians;  but  no  effort  at  union  was  success- 
ful until  the  outbreak  of  the  struggle  with  the  mother 
country.      Then   intercolonial   committees   of  corre- 
spondence  were   organized,    and   several   congresses 
were  held.     It  was  the  second  Continental  Congress 
that  began  the  war  and  declared  independence.   This 
Congress  also  undertook  to  draw  up  a  formal  plan  of 
union  under  a  central  goverimient.     The  result  was 
the  Articles  of  Confederation,  which  were  adopted  in 
1778  and  were  finally  ratified  by  all  the  states  in  1781. 
The  central  government,  under  the  Articles  of  Con- 
federation, consisted  of  a  Congress  whose  members 
were  elected  by  the  legislatures  of  the  states.  Through 
coimiiittees  it  directed  the  conduct  of  the  war  and 
exercised  other  executive  functions.    Each  state  had 
one  vote  in  the  Congress,  and  in  important  matters 
the  agreement  of  nine  states  was  necessary.     The 
Congress  was  very  weak  because : 

1.  It  could  pass  laws  on  a  few  subjects,  but  it  was 
unable  to  enforce  them.  It  issued  its  commands  to  the 
states,  which  obeyed  them  or  not,  much  as  they 
pleased. 


Consliltdiotud  Sv.slcrn 


197 


Fig.  88.  "Signinp  of  tho  ( :wii->iiiiiiiw.i  .,i  I  iii;>>!  m.i;.>.""  ;i  study- 
sketch  by  Rossitcr.  The  ('.oiistiliilioiinl  ( lonvoritiori  iiict  in  the  hall 
where  the  Deciiiriilioii  of  IndepeiKlciuo  was  sij^iicd.  Without  the 
ConstitutioFi,  in(le{)enderice  might  have  proved  a  sad  experiment. 

2.  It  Jiad  no  power  to  tay  taxes.  It  could  only 
decide  how  iiiiicli  money  it  needed,  apportion  lliis 
amount  among  the  several  states,  and  wait  for  them 
to  pay.  They  were  so  remiss  in  making  payments 
that  the  revenues  of  the  Confederation  after  the 
Revolution  dropped  to  as  little  as  $500,000  a  year. 
There  was  a  great  deal  of  trouble,  also,  because  each 
state  regulated  commerce  wdth  other  states  and  for- 
eign countries  in  its  own  way.  This  led  to  disputes 
between  states  and  prevented  Congress  from  making 
commercial  treaties  with  other  countries.  In  fact, 
under  the  Confederation  each  state  remained  prac- 
tically an  independent  powder. 

The  Constitution.  After  the  Revolution  the 
United  States  passed  through  a  very  unliappy  period. 
There  was  nnich  poverty,  and  discontent  was  some- 
times expressed  in  acts  of  violence,  as  in  "Shays's 
RebelHon"  in  Massachusetts.     The  Confederation 


198  Loyal  Citizenship ' 

was  entirely  unable  to  deal  with  the  situation.  There 
was  real  danger  that  the  Union  would  break  up  and 
independence  be  lost,  and  people  began  to  see  the  need 
for  a  really  strong  central  government.  In  1787  the 
state  legislatures  sent  delegates  to  a  Convention  at 
Philadelphia  to  prepare  amendments  to  the  Articles 
of  Confederation. 

The  Convention  was  presided  over  by  George 
Washington,  and  it  included  the  wisest  men  of  the 
country,  among  them  Benjamin  Franklin,  Alexander 
Hamilton,  and  James  Madison.  The  delegates  de- 
cided to  abandon  the  Articles  of  Confederation  as 
hopeless  and  to  draft  an  entirely  new  Constitution. 
This  they  did  so  admirably  that  with  very  little 
change  the  form  of  goverimaent  they  created  for 
3,000,000  people  on  the  Atlantic  seaboard  now  serves 
the  needs  of  a  nation  of  110,000,000  people  covering 
a  continent.  The  Constitution  was  to  become  effec- 
tive as  soon  as  ratified  by  conventions  in  nine  of  the 
states.  This  took  place  in  1788,  and  George  Wash- 
ington was  elected  President.  He  was  inaugurated 
on  March  4,  1789,  the  ceremony  taking  place  in  New 
York  City. 

The  Federal  system.  The  new  government  was 
much  stronger  than  the  Confederation.  It  was  given 
the  power  to  lay  its  own  taxes  and  to  enforce  its  own 
laws  directly  upon  the  citizen.  The  Constitution  of 
the  United  States  was  declared  to  be  the  supreme 
law  of  the  land,  and  in  its  own  sphere  the  central 
government  was  able  to  act  quite  independently  of 
the  states.     The  states,  however,  were  left  all  the 


Consi'didiotial  Sysiein  L99 

powers  not  expressly  granted  to  the  United  States, 
and  these  were  by  far  the  larger  part  of  all  the  powers 
that  governments  ordinarily  exercise. 

The  most  significant  increase  in  the  authority  of 
the  central  govermnent  was  the  grant  to  it  of  power 
to  regulate  interstate  and  foreign  commerce,  the  states 
being  forbidden  to  lay  taxes  on  imports. 

States-rights  doctrine.  Early  in  the  history  of 
our  government  the  idea  was  advanced  in  different 
quarters  that  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States 
was  merely  an  agreement  between  independent 
states,  and  that  a  state  might  disregard  national  laws 
if  it  chose  to  do  so.  Later  the  doctrine  was  advanced 
that  a  state  might  even  withdraw  from  the  Union 
(secede).  These  ideas  took  firmest  hold  in  the 
Southern  states,  whose  interests  then  differed  widely 
from  the  interests  of  the  other  states.  Seven  of 
them  withdrew  from  the  Union  in  1860  and  1861. 
Four  years  of  warfare  resulted  in  the  restoration  of 
the  Union.  Everybody  now  agrees  that  we  are  one 
people  and  that  the  union  of  states  can  never  be  dis- 
solved. 

Implied  powers.  The  eighth  section  of  Article  I  of 
the  Constitution  gives  a  list  of  the  powers  granted  to 
Congress  and  then  declares  that  Congress  shall  have 
power  "to  make  all  taws  which  shall  be  necessary 
and  proper  for  carrying  into  execution  the  foregoing 
powers,  and  all  other  powers  vested  by  this  Con- 
stitution in  the  government  of  the  United  States  or 
any  department  or  officer  thereof."  At  the  begin- 
ning of  W  ashington's  first  administration  Alexander 


200  Loyal  Citizenship 

Hamilton,  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  wanted  to 
have  created  a  bank  of  the  United  States  in  which 
government  money  might  be  deposited  and  which 
would  assist  the  government  in  financial  matters. 
He  declared  that  Congress  had  an  implied  power 
(under  the  clause  of  the  Constitution  that  has  just 
been  quoted)  to  charter  the  United  States  Bank. 
Thomas  Jefferson  contended  that  Congress  had  no 
implied  power  to  create  a  bank  because  a  bank  was 
not  necessary  in  the  sense  that  it  was  indispensable. 
Hamilton's  view  was  accepted  by  Washington,  the 
bank  was  created  by  act  of  Congress,  and  the  Su- 
preme Court  declared  the  act  constitutional.  The 
phrase  "necessary  and  proper"  has  since  been 
treated  as  if  it  read   "necessary  or  proper." 

Growth  of  the  powers  of  the  United  States. 
Since  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution  the  authority 
of  the  Federal  Government  has  increased  very  much, 
while  the  authority  of  the  states  has,  by  comparison, 
diminished.  The  growth  of  interstate  commerce  and 
the  extension  of  the  doctrine  of  implied  powers  have  had 
much  to  do  with  this. 

In  1788  there  was  little  commerce  between  the 
states.  Stretches  of  wilderness  separated  most  of  the 
settlements,  and  transportation  was  slow  and  expen- 
sive. The  fact  that  Congress  had  power  to  regulate 
commerce  between  the  states  was  of  little  importance 
under  such  conditions.  But  now,  with  our  wonderful 
means  of  transportation,  most  of  the  articles  we  use 
are  brought  to  us  by  interstate  commerce — regulated  by 
Congress.    The  result  is  that  the  Federal  government 


Con  stitut  ion  a  I  Syslrm 


201 


I  .  ■*^.  .1.  Sijjnat  I'orps 

Fig.  89.  Our  Fedoriil  {loverninont  centers  in  the  Capitol  at  Washing- 
ton. Tht'  hiiildin},'  itself  servos  as  a  symbol  of  the  nation.  This 
ph()l<)f,'rii[)h  was  taken  on  the  night  when  war  was  declared,  April  6, 
1917. 

now  controls  many  mailers  formerly  left  to  the  states 
— for  example,  railroad  rates  (even  between  points 
within  a  state),  and  the  preparation  of  foods  and 
drugs  that  enter  into  interstate  commerce. 

QUESTIONS 

What  ideas  of  liluTly  and  government  did  tlic  settlers  of  the 
English  colonies  in  America  bring  with  ihem.^  What  was  the  general 
scheme  of  government  in  the  Thirteen  Colonies.^  What  was  a 
colonial  eharterP  \\  hat  did  the  colonies  do  with  regard  to  govern- 
ment whi'n  the  War  for  Independence  began.^  What  were  some  of 
the  changes  from  colonial  government.^  What  is  a  constitution.^ 
How  does  it  dilfer  from  an  ordinary  law.^  Can  you  name  any  of  the 
pre-Uevolutionary  attempts  at  union?     What  were  the  Articles  of 


202  Loyal  Citizenship 

Confederation?  How  was  Congress  elected?  How  many  votes  did 
each  state  have?  What  were  the  chief  causes  of  the  weakness  of 
Congress  under  the  Confederation?  What  was  the  Constitutional 
Convention  of  1787?  Name  some  of  its  members.  What  can  you 
say  of  the  permanency  of  its  results?  In  what  way  was  the  new 
central  government  strengthened?  What  was  the  most  significant 
increase  in  its  powers?  What  is  meant  by  "implied  powers"? 
On  what  theory  was  the  idea  of  the  right  of  secession  based?  What 
effect  did  the  war  between  the  states  have  on  this  theory?  Explain 
the  growth  in  the  power  of  the  Federal  government  as  compared 
with  the  power  of  the  states.     Give  examples. 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Study  the  Constitution  itself.  Do  not  try  to  consider  matters  of 
fine  distinction,  but  make  yourself  familiar  with  the  document  in  its 
main  outlines.    The  Constitution  is  printed  at  the  back  of  this  book. 

Each  of  the  powers  of  Congress  enumerated  in  the  Constitution 
may  be  made  a  subject  for  report.  The  powers  specifically  denied 
the  states  or  Congress  may  also  be  reported  on.  The  government  of 
any  one  colony  furnishes  a  good  topic. 

See  Kimball,  Everett,  The  National  Government  of  the  United 
States;  Mltnro,  W.  B.,  The  Government  of  the  United  Stales;  Beard, 
C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics;  Reed.  T.  H.,  Form  and 
Functions  of  American  Government,  Chapters  1  to  4  inclusive. 

For  the  Constitution  and  for  documents  other  than  the  Consti- 
tution of  the  United  States  see  MacDonald.  W.,  Charters  and 
Other  Documents  Illustrative  of  American  History;  Beard,  C.  A., 
Readings  in  American  Government  and  Politics.  Thorpe,,  F.  N., 
American  Charters  and  Constitutions,  contains  all  the  charters  and 
constitutions  of  each  of  the  states.  The  Articles  of  Confederation 
may  be  found  in  American  History  Leaflets  No.  7  and  in  Reed's 
Form  and  Functions  of  American  Government. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

An  exercise  commemorative  of  the  adoption  of  the  Constitution. 
This  may  take  the  form  of  a  brief  pageant  or  a  tableau  showing  the 
scene  in  Independence  Hall  when  the  Constitution  was  signed.  If 
such  an  effort  is  too  elaborate,  members  of  the  class  may  recite 
extracts  from  the  Constitution  and  from  the  great  tributes  to  the 
Constitution  by  our  statesmen  and  poets  and  by  foreign  observers 
like  Gladstone  and  Brvce. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-SEVEN 
Making  Law 

Three  departments  of  government.  The  constitu- 
tions of  tlie  Lnilod  Slates  and  llie  several  states 
make  a  very  clear  separation  between  the  officers  or 
bodies  that  exercise  legislative  (law-making),  execu- 
tive (law-enforcing),  and  judicial  (law-applying) 
powers  in  our  government.  The  purpose  in  this  is 
to  keep  supreme  power  from  falling  into  the  hands 
of  one  department,  the  better  to  protect  our  liberties. 
We  shall  consider  the  legislative,  executive,  and  judi- 
cial departments  of  our  government  in  order;  but 
first  we  need  to  get  a  clearer  idea  of  what  laws  are 
and  how  they  originate. 

Our  laws.  Laws  are  those  rules  of  conduct  which 
are  enforced  by  the  government  of  nation,  state,  or 
community.  The  earliest  laws  were  founded  on 
custom,  and  to  this  day  Ihe  very  core  of  our  laiv  is  based 
on  custom  expressed  in  the  decisions  of  judges.  In  old- 
time  England,  when  the  courts  had  decided  a  case 
based  on  a  given  state  of  facts,  they  decided  all 
similar  cases  in  the  same  way.  Thus  in  the  course  of 
centuries  a  great  body  of  "judge-made  law  "  came  to 
be  established.  This  law,  founded  on  reason  and  the 
authority  of  earlier  cases  ("precedent"  or  custom), 
is  known  as  the  common  law.  It  prevails  throughout 
the  English-speaking  countries,  and  the  courts  are 
still  making  law  by  their  decisions.  Other  laws  are 
made  by  statute;  that  is,  by  the  action  of  law-making 
bodies  such  as  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  or 
the  state  legislatures. 

203 


204 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  90.  The  senate  chamber  of  the  state  of  Texas.  Then;  are  31 
members  of  the  Texas  senate.  This  body  is  small  enough  for  calm 
and  thorough  consideration  of  public  measures. 

The  state  legislature.  All  our  state  legislatures 
consist  of  two  houses,  a  larger  or  lower  one  called  the 
"house  of  representatives"  or  the  "assembly,"  and 
an  upper  house  called  the  "senate."  A  bill  must  be 
passed  by  both  houses  to  become  law.  There  is 
no  difference  in  the  power  of  the  two  houses,  except 
that  laws  appropriating  money  or  levying  taxes 
must  usually  begin  in  the  lower  house.  The  upper 
house  is  generally  more  influential  than  the  lower 
house.  The  term  of  a  senator  is  usually  four  years, 
while  that  of  a  representative  is  usually  two  years. 
The  members  of  the  senate,  being  fewer  in  number, 
are  elected  from  larger  districts.  The  senate  being 
smaller,  the  individual  members  have  greater  op- 
jjortunity    to    express    themselves.     All    these    cir- 


MakiiKj  Law  205 

cuinstaiices  help  lo  make  the  senate  ai»  aljler  body 
Ihaii  the  house.  The  legishiture  meets  every  two 
years  in  most  states.  In  a  few  it  meets  ever>'  year. 
Special  sessions  may  1)0  called  hy  the  {jfovernor,  and 
these  can  tcike  u})  only  the  business  that  the  governor 
specifies  in  his  call. 

The  people,  iwforfunafely,  do  not  lake  enough  inferesl 
in  Ihe  eleclion  of  slule  senalors  and  represenlatives. 
Their  work  is  of  the  highest  importance,  and  it  could 
be  done  a  great  deal  better  than  it  is  now.  For  one 
thing,  our  legishitors  make  too  many  laws  and  make 
them  in  too  nmch  of  a  hurny'.  It  is  not  unusual  in  the 
larger  states  to  have  eight  or  nine  hundred  laws 
passed  in  a  session  lasting  about  one  hundred  days, 
about  three  fourths  of  them  being  passed  in  the  last 
fifteen  days.  Haste  makes  waste  in  law-making  as 
in  everything  else.  The  members  of  both  houses 
receive  small  salaries,  varying  from  $1500  a  year  in 
New  York  and  Pennsylvania  to  three  dollars  a  day 
in  Kansas  and  Oregon.  Many  people  believe  that  a 
single  house  of  thirty  or  forty  well-paid  members  could 
do  the  work  of  state  law-making  more  cheaply  and  more 
ejfectirely  than  it  is  now  done.  (Jenerally  speaking, 
state  legislators  are  fairly  representative  of  the  peo- 
ple. Most  of  them  work  hard  and  try  to  do  what  is 
right. 

The  Congress  of  the  United  States:  The  Senate. 
The  Congress  of  the  United  States  is  likewise  com- 
posed of  two  houses.  The  iipju'r  house  or  Senate 
was  intended  by  Ihe  framers  of  the  Constitution  to 
represent  the  states  as  such.    Tor  this  reason  each  state 


206  Loyal  Citizenship 

was  allowed  two  Senators.  Originally  these  were 
chosen  by  the  state  legislatures;  but  since  the  adop- 
tion of  the  Seventeenth  Amendment  they  have  been 
elected  by  the  people.  The  Senate  was  also  intended 
to  serve  as  a  protection  against  hasty  action  following 
sudden  changes  of  opinion  by  the  people.  For  this 
reason  the  term  of  a  Senator  was  fixed  at  six  years, 
and  the  temis  w  ere  so  arranged  that  one  third  of  the 
membership  changes  every  two  years. 

The  Senate  has  proved  to  be  much  more  powerful 
than  the  House  of  Representatives.  7/^  consent  is 
necessary  to  the  ratification  of  treaties  (for  this  purpose 
a  two- thirds  vote  is  required)  and  to  the  making  of 
important  appointments  by  the  President.  But  it  is 
the  long  senatorial  term  and  the  small  size  of  the  body 
which  really  account  for  its  superiority. 

The  House  of  Representatives.  The  House  of 
Representatives  began  with  sixty-five  members.  The 
Constitution  provides  that  the  number  of  represen- 
tatives from  each  state  shall  be  fixed  every  ten  years, 
immediately  following  the  census.  The  number  of 
members  has  been  steadily  increased  until  there  are 
now  over  four  hundred.  The  House  has  to  meet, 
therefore,  in  a  very  large  room,  so  large  that  it  is 
difficult  for  any  one  except  a  trained  public  speaker 
to  be  heard  by  the  other  members.  The  great  size  of 
the  House  has  made  it  necessary  to  have  rules  for  its 
procedure  which  very  greatly  limit  the  power  of  the  indi- 
vidual member.  The  House  of  Representatives  is 
made  up  of  men  who,  on  the  average,  wiU  compare 
favorably  with  the  English  House  of  Commons  or  the 


Making  Law  207 

French  Chamber  of  Deputies.  There  are,  liowever. 
very  few  really  great  men  in  the  House  of  Repre- 
sentatives. This  is  due  chiefly  to  the  fact  that  a  man 
cannot  become  a  leader  in  the  House  except  by  being 
a  member  of  it  for  many  years.  Places  on  the  impor- 
tant committees,  which  as  we  shall  see  do  most  of 
the  work,  are  given  on  the  basis  of  length  of  service. 

How  laws  begin.  Laws  begin  as  bills  (proposed 
laws),  and  each  member  of  a  legislative  body  may 
prepare  and  introduce  them.  Legislators  are  willing, 
also,  to  introduce  bills  that  are  prepared  by  private 
individuals  or  organizations. 

Some  of  the  more  important  bills,  in  which  the 
great  political  parties  are  interested,  are  carefully 
prepared  by  experienced  members  of  the  legislature 
or  by  officers  of  the  goverrmient. 

Legislative  reference  bureaus.  The  bills  prepared 
by  ordinary  members  and  by  private  individuals  and 
organizations  are  often  carelessly  drawn.  In  this 
way  a  good  many  loose  and  ineffective  laws,  and 
some  really  bad  ones,  have  been  adopted.  To  correct 
thi§  evil  many  states  have  established  legislative 
reference  bureaus.  These  bureaus  are  in  charge  of 
experts  who  gather  material  on  the  subjects  in  which 
members  are  interested  and  help  them  in  the  prepara- 
tion of  bills.  This  has  done  a  great  deal  toward  im- 
proving the  quality  of  our  laws. 

The  conimittee  system.  So  many  bills  are  intro- 
duced in  our  legislative  bodies  that  it  would  be 
impossible  to  consider  them  all  before  each  house. 
Furthermore,  it  is  not  possible  for  any  member  to 


208  Loyal  Citizenship 

study  all  the  bills.  Each  house,  therefore,  is  divided 
into  committees  for  the  consideration  of  different  im- 
portant classes  of  legislation.  Upon  these  committees 
the  party  in  power  always  has  a  safe  majority  of 
members. 

The  committees  in  state  legislatures  are  usually 
appointed  by  the  presiding  officer.  In  both  the 
United  States  Senate  and  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives committees  are,  in  name,  appointed  by  the 
body  itself.  In  practice,  in  the  Senate  the  majority 
and  the  minority  party  each  hold  a  caucus.  Each 
caucus  then  appoints  a  Committee  on  Committees, 
which  names  tlie  members  of  its  party  that  are  to 
serve  on  committees  of  the  Senate.  In  the  House  of 
Representatives  the  caucus  of  the  majority  party 
appoints  fourteen  and  tJiat  of  tJie  minority  seven 
members  of  the  Committee  on  Ways  and  Means,  which 
suggests  to  the  House  a  "slate"  of  all  the  other  com- 
mittees. 

The  members  of  each  committee  are  usually  per- 
sons interested  in  the  particular  subject  to  which  its 
attention  is  devoted.  Thus  the  judiciary  committee 
is  always  made  up  of  lawyers,  and  the  committee  on 
agriculture,  as  far  as  possible,  of  farmers.  Committee 
chairmanships  and  places  on  the  more  important 
committees  usually  are  given  to  the  oldest  members 
in  point  of  service.  Each  bill,  as  soon  as  it  is  in- 
troduced, is  referred  by  the  presiding  officer  of  the 
house  in  question  to  the  appropriate  conmaittee. 
The  committee  hears  every  one  who  is  interested 
in  the  defeat  or  passage  of  the  bill  and  finally,  after 


Making  Imw 


209 


Kk;.  01.  A  lii'jiriiif,'  bcfon-  a  Consrossioiml  coiiiinitti'c.  This  boy,  on 
lu'liiilf  of  60. ()(»()  school  cliildrcn.  iiijidc  a  plea  before  ihii  House  Coni- 
iiiittee  of  the  District  of  ( '.ohiiiibia  for  an  appropriation  to  promote 
nature  study  in  tiie  Wasliington  schools. 

careful  considoralion,  votes  to  report  or  not  to  report 
it.  If  the  coiiiiiiiltee  does  not  report  the  bill,  it 
goes  no  farther;  if  the  committee  does  report  the 
bill,  it  stands  a  good  cliance  of  passage  by  ihe  house. 
The  bill  in  the  house.  In  all  our  legislatures  bills 
are  recpiin'd  to  1)C  "read  three  limes."  Before  the 
practice  of  printing  bills  became  common,  these 
readings  were  actual  readings.  The  first  reading  takes 
place  when  llie  bill  is  introduced,  and  consists  simply 
in  reading  its  title.  It  is  then  without  debate  or  vote 
referred  to  a  connnittee.  After  it  comes  from  the 
connnittee  it  is  "read"  a  second  time  and  voted 
upon.  If  there  are  enough  votes  to  pass  it,  it  is  read 
a  third  time  and  voted  on  once  more.    In  most  state 


210  Loyal  Citizenship 

legislatures  the  second  and  tliird  readings  are  by  title 
only.  In  the  national  House  of  Representatives  the 
second  reading  is  in  full,  clause  by  clause,  for  the 
purpose  of  debate  and  amendment.  The  third  read- 
ing is  by  title,  unless  a  member  requests  that  the  bill 
be  read  again  in  full.  In  the  national  House  there  is 
also  a  vote  on  final  passage. 

The  discussion  which  is  given  bills  in  legislative 
bodies  is  not  very  thorough.  On  some  extremely 
important  bills  there  will  be  a  number  of  rather  loud 
political  speeches,  but  no  member's  opinion  is  likely 
to  be  influenced  by  them.  Members  of  the  state 
legislatures  and  of  the  national  Congress  make 
speeches  not  so  much  for  one  another  as  for  the  people 
who  elect  them.  The  real  consideration  of  legislation 
takes  place  in  committee. 

The  veto.  After  a  bill  has  passed  through  both 
houses,  it  is  sent  to  the  governor  or  President,  as  the 
case  may  be,  for  his  signature.  If  he  does  not  approve 
of  the  measure,  he  may  send  it  back  to  the  house  in 
which  it  originated,  stating  his  reasons  for  disap- 
proval. This  is  the  veto.  Once  vetoed,  a  bill  can  be- 
come law  only  if  it  is  passed  over  again,  usually  by  a 
two-thirds  vote  (in  some  states  by  a  tliree-fifths  vote). 
The  signature  of  the  chief  executive  will  not  be  re- 
quired if  a  bill  is  passed  over  his  veto.  (In  North 
Carolina  the  governor  has  no  veto  power.)  Bills  that 
reach  the  executive  so  close  to  the  end  of  the  session 
that  he  cannot  send  them  back  within  the  time 
allowed  him  for  their  consideration  (ten  days  in  the 
case  of  the  President)  he  may  kill,  except  in  a  few 


H.  R.  2499. 


Making  Law 

nBUC...M-2-C  67«h  CONGRESS.) 


211 


^Dds-sthndb  Cmtgrtss  of  l^t  ®niltb  ^taltj  of  ^ramta; 

;]Vt  the  5""**  ^casiom. 


Aisr  A.CT 


To  provide  for  Ihc  icquisilion  by  tbo  United  Stales  of  privtU;  rigiiU  of  fitbeiy 
in  tad  liiout  PeaH  Harbor,  Territory  of  Hawtii. 


Be  it  enacted  by  the  Senate  and  BoMae  oj  Iieprt»entative*  o/  the  United 
State*  o/  America  in  Conj^rvji  nssernbled.  That  tbo  &«er«tvy  of  the  N'try  u 
hereby  mithori2C<l  to  exunino  and  appraue  the  raluo  ot  Itte  privftt«ly  owned 
right*  of  fiiihcr>  in  Pearl  Harbor,  island  of  Oabu,  Temtcry  of  Hawaii,  from 
an  imaginary  line  from  Kaak  PoiDt  to  Beckoning  Point,  both  within  iald 
harbor,  to  the  seaward,  and  the  privately  owned  ngbta  of  fiahery  in  and  about 
th«  entrance  channel  to  said  harbor,  and  to  enter  into  negotiationi  for  tbo 
purrhaM  of  the  aaid  right*  and,  if  in  his  judgment  the  price  for  such  right*  it 
reasonable  and  sal iiif^  lory,  to  make  contracts  for  the  purchase  of  same  subject 
to  future  ratification  and  appropriation  by  Congress;  or  in  tho  event  of  the 
inability  of  the  Secretary  of  the  Navy  to  make  a  tatisfact«r>'  contract  for  tho 
voluntary  purcha*e  of  tbo  said  rights  of  fishery,  he  is  hereby  authorized  and 
directed  through  tho  Attorney  General  to  institute  and  carry  to  completion 
proceedingv  for  tho  condemnation  of  said  rights  of  fishery,  the  acoeptaocc  of 
the  award  in  said  prweedings  to  be  subject  to  the  future  ratification  and 
appropriation  by  Congress.  Such  condemnation  proceedings  shall  be  instituted 
aud  conducted  in,  and  jurisdiction  of  said  procoodinp!  is  hereby  given  to,  tlo 
district  court  of  tho  United  States  for  the  district  of  Iluwaii.  substantially  as 
provided  in  "An  Act  to  authorize  condemnation  of  land  for  iites  for  publi<: 
buildings,  and  for  other  purposes,"  approviMi  August  1,  1888.  and  the  sum 
of  $5,000  is  hereby  authorized  to  bo  appropriat4?d,  to  be  immediately  and 
ooDtinuouily  available  until  expended,  to  pay  the  necessar)-  costs  thereof  and 
expenses  in  connection  therewith.  The  Secretary  of  tho  Nary  U  further 
'authorized  and  directed  to  report  the  proceedings  hereunder  to  Congra*. 

,A^  riet  I'etnJent  oJ  Of   Cniltil  Slaf^aM 


/^-y^^.-^pK^-i 


•rwdml'. 


%l  Ikt  Srnalr. 


Fig.  92.  An  act  of  Congress  as  it  ap[>ears  of  r('ct)rd.  Ob- 
serve the  signatures  of  the  Speaker  of  the  House  of 
F\ej>resentali\es  aiui  of  tlie  Vice  President,  which  show 
thai  the  hill  i)asse(l  eacli  liouse.  and  tht>  aj)proN  al  of  the 
IVesident,  whicli  finailv   made  tlie  hill  law. 


212  Loyal  Citizenship 

states,  by  simply  neglecting  to  sign  them.  This  is 
known  as  the  pocket  veto.  In  many  states  the 
governor  has  thirty  days  after  the  adjourmnent  of  the 
legislature,  in  which  to  make  up  his  mind  on  bills. 
The  veto  power  has  in  recent  years  been  very  much 
used  both  in  national  and  state  affairs. 

QUESTIONS 
What  is  a  law?  Describe  the  part  courts  play  in  making  laws. 
What  is  meant  by  "law-making  bodies"?  How  many  houses  are 
there  in  a  state  legislature?  Is  there  any  difference  in  their  powers? 
in  their  influence?  What  was  the  United  States  Senate  intended  to 
represent?  Why  is  the  Senate  more  powerful  than  the  House  of 
Representatives?  W  hat  difficulties  does  the  large  size  of  the  House 
of  Representatives  present?  How  is  a  law  proposed?  Explain  the 
importance  of  the  committee  system.  How  are  committees  appointed 
in  state  legislatures?  in  Congress?  What  is  meant  by  the  "three 
readings"  of  a  bill?    What  is  the  veto?    What  is  a  pocket  veto? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  personnel  of  legislative  bodies.  The  teacher  may  assign  to 
each  member  of  the  class  the  duty  of  examining  the  biography  of  a 
number  of  members  of  the  legislature  or  of  the  Congress  of  the 
United  States.  Such  biographies  can  be  obtained  from  the  Congres- 
sional Directory  and  from  a  similar  book  published  in  most  states 
and  obtainable  from  the  secretary  of  state.  The  results  may  be 
tabulated  so  as  to  show  the  occupation,  education,  and  previous 
political  experience  of  the  members  of  each  body. 

The  organization  and  procedure  of  the  legislature  of  your  own 
state  and  of  the  Congress  of  the  United  States  may  be  divided  into 
a  number  of  topics.  The  use  of  the  veto  in  your  own  state  and  in 
the  national  government  are  excellent  topics.  See  Munro,  W.  B., 
Government  of  {he  United  States;  Kimball,  Everett,  The  National 
Government  of  the  United  Stales;  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Govern- 
ment and  Politics;  McCall,  S.  W.,  The  Business  of  Congress;  Reed, 
T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions  of  American  Government,  Chapters  11, 
12,  21,  and  22.  Tables  showing  terms  of  state  legislatures  and 
salaries  of  members,  etc.,  may  be  found  in  the  World  Almanac. 
See  also  the  American  Year  Book. 


Making  Law  213 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

The  class  organiziition  should  now  he  turned  into  a  legislative 
body.  By  using  copies  of  l)ills,  files,  and  journals,  which  can  usually 
be  obtained  from  the  secretary  of  stale  at  your  state  ca[)ital,  the 
class  can  be  made  to  grasp  concretely  what  the  text  necessarily 
describes  so  generally. 

A  visit  to  th(^  state  legislature,  if  it  is  in  session,  will  be  found  to 
repay  even  a  considerabh^  journey.  If  such  a  visit  is  iiiiijracticable, 
do  not  forget  that  city  councils,  county  boards,  and  boards  of 
education  are  legislatives  bodies,  and  that  their  procedure  is  essen- 
tially the  same  as  that  of  the  larger  bodies.  A  talk  on  legi.slative 
methods  and  procedure  by  a  present  or  former  member  of  the  state 
legislature  will  be  helpful. 


Fig.  9.3.  The  mace,  the  symbol 
of  authority  in  the  national 
House  of  Representatives.  In 
the  hands  of  the  sergeant-at- 
arms  of  the  House  it  indicates 
that  he  is  prepared  to  use  force 
to  restore  order. 


CHAPTER  TWENTY-EIGHT 
Carrying  Out  the  Law 

The  executive.  Laws  of  themselves  are  ineffec- 
tive. There  must  be  some  machinery  for  carrying 
them  out.  The  courts  interpret  and  apply  the  law; 
but  the  decisions  of  courts  cannot  be  effective  unless 
there  is  back  of  them  the  force  of  government.  This 
force  is  commanded  by  the  executive.  The  President  of 
the  United  States  is  the  commander-in-chief  of  our 
army  and  navy.  Similarly,  the  governor  of  a  state 
controls  its  militia.  The  management  and  direction 
of  aU  the  activities  of  government,  from  conducting  a 
war  down  to  cleaning  our  streets,  is  the  work  of  the 
executive. 

The  state  executive.  The  principal  state  execu- 
tive is  the  governor.  He  is  elected  by  the  people  and 
has  a  great  deal  of  influence  and  prestige  because, 
in  the  state  goverim:ient,  he  is  the  representative  of  the 
people  as  a  whole.  Several  important  branches  of 
executive  power,  however,  are  not  under  his  control 
at  all  but  are  directed  by  officers  who  are  also  elected 
by  the  people,  such  as  the  secretary  of  state,  the  state 
treasurer,  the  auditor  or  controller,  and  the  attorney- 
general. 

Our  states  maintain  a  great  many  public  institu- 
tions such  as  universities,  normal  schools,  hospitals 
for  the  insane,  prisons,  and  reformatories.  They 
regulate  pubHc  utilities,  banks,  insurance  companies, 
and  building  and  loan  associations;  and  in  recent 
years  they  have  undertaken,  among  other  things,  to 
promote  agriculture  and  forestry,  to  study  the  prob- 

214 


( '.urrviiKj  (Jul  1 1  if,  Ijur 


<IMANY  OTHERS  UP  TO  A  TOTAL  OF  ONE  HUNDRED  OR  MORE 


Fi<;s.  91  and  95.   State  government  as  it  is,  and  a  suggestion  for  its 
organization  in  a  more  rational  manner. 

lems  of  labor,  and  to  provide  pensions  for  mothers. 
The  governor  a{)poiiits  and  removes  the  lieads  of 
the  hundred  or  more  departments  and  institutions 
(often  with  the  advice  and  consent  of  the  stal^ 
senate).     But  the  deparlments  are  so  numerous  Ihaf 


216  Loyal  Citizenship 

he  cannot  realty  supervise  them,  and  there  are  no 
officers  who  stand  between  the  governor  and  the 
departments.  Consequently,  the  executive  side  of 
state  government  is  Hke  an  army  with  a  general  and 
a  lot  of  captains  but  with  no  majors,  colonels,  or 
staff  officers  between  them  (Figs.  94  and  95). 

The  President — Electors.  The  chief  executive  of 
the  United  States  is,  of  course,  the  President.  He  is 
elected  by  the  people,  not  directly,  but  through 
electors  who  are  voted  for  in  each  state.  Each  state 
has  as  many  electors  as  it  has  Representatives  and 
Senators  in  Congress.  The  electors  exercise  no  free- 
dom of  choice  but  are  pledged  in  advance  to  vote  for 
a  particular  candidate  for  President.  Each  party 
puts  up  a  list  of  them,  and  practically  every  voter 
votes  for  the  whole  list  of  his  party.  It  has  happened 
and  may  happen  again  that  one  candidate  got  a 
majority  of  the  electoral  votes  while  another  got  a 
majority  of  the  popular  vote.  In  1888  Harrison  was 
elected  President,  although  Grover  Cleveland  had 
98,000  more  popular  votes.  It  is  very  much  more 
important  to  carry  New  York  by  a  thousand  votes 
than  it  is  to  carry  Vermont  by  fifty  thousand.  This 
has  led  political  parties  usually  to  nominate  their 
candidates  for  President  from  large  "doubtful 
states"  like  New  York  and  Ohio,  where  the  parties 
are  about  equally  divided. 

Election  of  a  President.  Candidates  for  the  presi- 
dency are  nominated  by  the  great  political  parties  by 
means  of  national  conventions.  To  these  national 
conventions  the  members  of  the  party  in  each  state 


Carrying  Out  the  Law  217 

scikI  (l('lpf?ates.  Hie  ddcgatos  are  selected  eillur  by 
convent  ions  or,  as  in  several  states,  by  a  presidential 
preference  primary.  They  assemble  in  a  great  hall 
and  nominate  candidates  for  President  and  ^  ice- 
Presidenl  and  adopt  a  party  platform  (declaration  of 
principles).  Much  more  attention  is  paid  to  the 
declarations  that  are  made  by  the  candidate  himself 
— his  "speech  of  acceptance"  and  other  addresses — 
than  to  the  party  platform. 

The  period  before  a  presidential  election  is  always  a 
time  of  great  excitement;  political  meetings  are  held 
all  over  the  country,  and  sometimes  the  struggle 
becomes  very  bitter.  But  w  hen  the  result  of  the  vot- 
ing has  been  announced,  the  defeated  party  at  once 
settles  down  to  wait  for  another  chance  four  years 
later.  There  is  something  very  fine  in  the  good 
sportsmanship  which  is  shown  by  the  losing  side  in 
our  elections. 

Powers  of  the  President.  The  President  is  in  fact 
as  well  as  in  name  the  }iead  of  the  executive  department 
of  our  national  govenmient.  He  does  not  divide  his 
power  with  other  elective  officers  as  the  governor 
does.  Furthermore,  the  executive  department  is  so 
organized  as  to  give  him  effective  control  over  all  its 
branches.  Innnediately  l)elow  the  President  come 
the  members  of  his  Catiinet.  Each  of  them  is  the 
head  of  one  of  tiie  great  departments  into  which  the 
work  of  administration  is  divided.  riiese  depart- 
ments are  as  follows:  State,  treasury.  War,  Justice, 
Post  OfHce,  iNavy,  Interior,  Agriculture,  Connnerce, 
and  Labor.    The  President  meets  with  the  Cabinet 


218 


Loyal  Citizenship 


(larryiiKj  Oiil  Ifir  Lair  219 

every  ucek  for  coiisullalioii  rc;j:;i((liii^  llic  policies 
f)l'  the  goNcriitueiil.  I)el(>\\  eiicli  (l;il)iiiel  iiieiiiber 
eonie  a  series  of  divisions,  bureaus,  and  ollices  so 
arranged  as  to  give  the  J^resideiiL  through  his  Cab- 
inet officers,  complete  control. 

The  President  by  his  power  u[  jn-cscid'uu]  messages 
to  Congress  and  by  his  ])o\ver  of  relo  has  a  very  large 
shareinlaw-niaking.  So  long  as  his  party  has  a  major- 
ity in  both  houses,  his  prestige  as  the  representative  of 
all  the  people  is  so  overwhelming  that  a  vigorous 
President  is  able  to  guide  the  act  ion  of  Congress.  Ikit 
when  his  party  ceases  to  have  control  of  either  house 
of  Congress,  there  is  likely  to  be  much  bickering  and 
little  achievement. 

Position  of  the  President.  The  President  occu- 
pies the  greatest  position  in  tiie  gift  of  the  people  of 
this  country.  He  holds  no  court  as  do  kings.  He 
dresses  and  lives  like  an  ordinary  American  citizen, 
and  when  his  term  of  oflice  is  over  he  slips  back  into 
the  ranks  of  his  fellow^  countrymen.  IVevertheless, 
every  good  man  tnid  woman  in  the  T'niled  Slates 
regards  the  President  with  a  respect  that  is,  if  any- 
thing, greater  than  that  shown  to  a  king  by  his  sub- 
jects. Even  those  who  disagree  with  him  most  pay 
him  the  respect  that  is  due  his  office  as  the  representa- 
tive of  the  people. 

QUESTIONS 

What  departinciil  (■oiiunands  the  force  of  governmontP  ^^  hy  is 
its  help  neeessary  to  make  eoiirt  deeisions  elleetive;'  \\  liat  is  the 
distinction  l)etween  lef,'ishition  and  administration!'  W  liat  wcidi- 
nesses  are  tlierc  in  the  position  of  ttie  governor  as  state  executive.^ 
How  would  the  short-ballot  principle  work  if  applied  in  the  cases  of 


220  Loyal  Citizenship 

state  officers  other  than  governor?  How  is  the  President  of  the 
United  States  elected?  What  is  the  practical  effect  of  this  system? 
What  is  a  national  convention?  How  does  the  losing  side  behave 
after  an  election?  What  makes  the  position  of  the  President  so  very 
important?  Say  what  you  can  of  the  organization  of  the  executive 
side  of  the  national  government.  W  hat  is  the  President's  Cabinet? 
Explain  the  influence  of  the  President  over  Congress. 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  National  Convention  of  any  party;  a  party  platform;  the 
presidential  campaign;  the  biographies  of  any  of  our  greater  Presi- 
dents; relations  of  the  President  to  Congress.  A  report  on  each  of 
the  executive  departments  of  your  state  government  or  of  the 
national  government  will  be  very  helpful. 

On  conventions  and  other  matters  relating  to  presidential  elections 
see  MuNBO,  W.  B.,  Government  of  the  United  States;  Beard,  C.  A., 
American  Government  and  Politics;  Bryce,  James,  The  American 
Commonwealth;  Ray,  P.  O.,  Introduction  to  Political  Parties  and 
Practical  Politics;  Johnston,  Alexander,  American  Politics.  On 
the  powers  of  the  President,  in  addition  to  Munro,  Beard,  and 
Bryce,  see  Haskin,  F.  J.,  The  American  Government;  Taft,  Wm.  H., 
Our  Chief  Magistrate  and  His  Poivers  and  The  Presidency:  Its  Duties, 
Its  Powers,  Its  Opportunities,  and  Its  Limitations.  On  the  executive 
departments  of  the  national  government  see  Haskin,  F.  J.,  The 
American  Government;  and  Cyclopiedia  of  American  Government 
(consult  under  name  of  each  department).  On  the  governor  and 
state  administration,  besides  Beard,  Munro,  and  Bryce,  see  Reinsch, 
P.  S.,  Readings  on  American  Stale  Government,  and  Reed,  T.  H., 
Government  for  the  People.  On  all  these  subjects  more  extensive 
reading  suggestions  may  be  found  in  Reed's  Form  and  Functions  of 
American  Government. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 
Appoint  a  committee  to  introduce  in  the  class,  organized  as  a 
legislative  body,  a  proposal  for  a  brief  amendment  to  the  state 
constitution.  Let  the  amendment  provide  for  the  grouping  of  the 
various  executive  departments,  the  head  of  each  department  to  be  a 
Cabinet  member  under  the  governor.  Let  the  committee  prepare 
charts  of  the  organization  of  the  state  executive  as  existing  and  as 
reorganized  under  the  proposed  amendment. 


GH AITKIN  T\VENTY-MNE 
Interpreting  and  AppLYiN(i  tin;  Law 

Courts.  Our  Coiislilutioii,  as  we  have  seen,  care- 
fully (iisliii^aiislies  and  separates  legislative,  execu- 
tive, and  judicial  power.  An  early  king,  however, 
was  legislator,  executive,  and  judge.  His  decree  be- 
came a  i)arl  of  I  he  law;  he  eoninianded  the  soldiers 
through  whom  law  was  enforced;  and  he  sal  in  the 
gateway  of  his  city  or  palace  to  apply  it — to  settle 
disputes  and  to  order  the  punishment  of  offenders. 

When  a  king's  duties  as  judge  came  to  be  burden- 
some, he  appointed  lesser  judges  to  hear  all  but  the 
greatest  cases.  Then  a  system  of  courts  developed  in 
place  of  tlie  single  courl  of  the  king.  But  men  were 
allowed,  under  i)roper  circumstances,  to  appeal  from 
the  decision  of  a  minor  judge  to  a  higher  judge,  and 
filially  to  the  king.     Courts  are  so  arranged  today. 

Civil  and  criminal  cases.  Often  there  is  a  dispute 
belween  individuals  concerning  their  rights  under 
the  law  or  concerning  the  facts  that  affect  their  rights. 
Either  of  the  parties  may  bring  the  dispute  into 
court  for  settlement.  The  courl  hears  the  plaintiff 
or  "complainant"  and  the  defendant,  and  their  Avit- 
nesses.  It  then  decides  which  party  is  right  under  the 
law  and  giv(>s  or  refuses  to  give  the  damages  or  other 
relief  asked  for.    Such  cases  are  known  as  civil  cases. 

Persons  charged  with  crime  are  also  brought  before 
the  courts,  and  they  are  there  given  fair  trials.  If  a 
court  finds  them  guilty,  it  fixes  punishment  in 
accordance"  with  law;  if  it  finds  them  iimocent,  it  sets 
thcui  free.     Such  cases  are  known  as  criminal  cases. 

221 


222  Loyal  Citizenship 

Rights  which  the  law  protects.  There  are  three 
great  rights  which  the  law  and  the  courts  must  pro- 
tect. The  first  is  the  right  of  personal  safety.  If  any 
one  does  you  bodily  injury,  either  intentionally  or 
carelessly,  you  can  demand  payment  for  damages 
from  him.  The  second  is  the  right  of  properly.  If 
any  one  by  force  or  fraud,  or  even  by  mistake,  takes 
or  injures  your  land  or  your  goods,  or  in  any  other 
way  causes  you  to  suffer  personal  injury  in  a  right 
that  has  money  value,  you  may  bring  an  action  in 
court  for  the  payment  of  money  dsunages  or  for  the 
restoration  of  particular  property. 

The  third  right  that  the  courts  will  enforce  is  the 
right  of  contract.  If  any  one  in  return  for  some  valu- 
able article  or  service  that  you  have  given  him 
promises  to  give  something  to  you  or  do  something 
for  your  benefit,  you  can  recover  the  amount  of  the 
damage  that  his  failure  to  keep  the  contract  causes 
you.  But  that  is  not  all.  The  courts  will,  in  a  proper 
case,  make  a  party  actually  do  what  in  justice  he  ought 
to  do. 

Crimes  and  their  punishment.  There  are  acts 
that  are  regarded  as  offenses  against  the  community 
itself,  even  though  they  are  directed  against  indi- 
viduals. Murder,  robbery,  counterfeiting,  and  ar- 
son, if  unchecked,  w  ould  reduce  the  country  to  ruin. 
Therefore  the  law  provides  severe  punishments  for 
such  acts  (crimes).  It  will  not  allow  the  injured 
party  or  his  family  or  friends  to  let  a  criminal  off  by 
forgiving  him.  Such  matters  are  not  private  affairs. 
The  community's  interest  comes  first. 


Interpreting  and  Applyiny  Law  223 


Fig.  97.    A  courtnjoin  sctTio.   Tho  yomif;  womui  -r 
is  being  tried  on  n  criMiiiial  cliiirire. 


d  at  llie  table 


Sometimes,  when  a  shocking  crime  has  taken  place, 
a  niol)  lynclics  tlic  person  susj)ected  of  connnitting  it. 
Lynching  is  murder.  It  nmrders  not  only  its  human 
victim  but  the  law  itself.  The  principle  that  no  one 
can  be  punished  for  a  crime  except  after  a  fair  trial 
is  one  of  ihe  fimdamenlals  of  American  liberty. 

Trial  courts.  In  each  stale  there  is  a  system  of 
courts  for  the  trial  of  civil  and  criminal  cases  of  every 
description.  These  systems  of  courts  differ  somew  hat 
in  details.  In  most  states  each  town  or  township  has 
a  justice  court  presided  over  by  a  justice  of  the  })eace 
elected  by  the  people.  This  court  has  power  to  try 
civil  cases  involving  not  more  than  a  few  hundred 
dollars  and  the  less  serious  criminal  cases  known  as 
misdemeanors.    A  person  dissatiFfied  with  the  deci- 


224  Loyal  Citizenship 

sion  in  a  justice  court  may  question  this  decision 
before  a  higher  court  (appeal  his  case). 

For  the  trial  of  the  more  important  civil  and  crim- 
inal cases  there  is  in  some  states  a  court  for  each 
county.  In  several  states  the  district  may  be  larger 
than  a  single  county.  In  a  few  states,  like  New 
York,  there  is  one  court  for  the  county  and  one  for  a 
larger  district,  the  most  important  cases  being  re- 
served for  the  latter. 

The  jury.  Every  person  accused  of  crime  is  en- 
titled to  trial  by  jury,  and  in  most  civil  cases  juries 
are  employed. 

In  securing  a  jury,  a  list  of  persons  (panel)  is  smn- 
moned  to  appear  at  the  time  set  for  the  trial.  From 
their  number  twelve  are  selected  by  lot.  Either 
party  to  a  case  can  cause  the  rejection  of  a  person 
so  selected  by  showing  that  he  might  not  be  fair- 
minded.  Either  party  can  also  reject  a  number  of 
jurors  without  giving  any  reason.  It  is  the  duty 
of  the  jury,  after  listening  to  the  evidence,  to  decide 
the  facts  of  a  case.  The  judge  instructs  the  jury 
on  the  law  of  the  case.  In  criminal  cases  the  deci- 
sion must  be  unanimous.  Several  states  now  provide 
for  decision  of  civil  cases  by  less  than  a  unanimous 
vote, — usually  three  fourths, — and  one  or  two  states 
provide  for  an  alternate  juror  to  take  the  place  of  one 
of  the  twelve  jurors  should  one  fall  ill. 

Jury  duty  is  not  very  pleasant,  and  some  cases  take 
a  long  time  to  try.  In  a  great  murder  case  the  jury 
may  be  kept  together,  with  no  chance  to  go  home,  for 
several  weeks.    Many  of  the  really  intelligent,  busy 


fnterpretinfi  and  Applyiivi  Lair 


223 


people  of  llie  eofiiinunily  inana^fe  lo  ^^el  excused  iroiii 
jury  duty.  If  (his  duty  is  left  to  idle,  uneducated 
})eople,  the  jury  system  becomes  very  unsatisfactory. 
It  nuist,  however,  he  maintained,  because  it  is  one  of 
our  chief  safei^uards  a.u'ainsl  possible  tyranny.  Feir 
dalles  of  the  citizen  are  more  iruporldul  IIkui  jary  daly. 

Judges.  Jn(l;,n^s  are  usually  elected  l)y  the  people, 
but  in  some  slates  they  are  appointed  by  the  gov- 
ernor. Except  for  justices  of  tlie  peace,  they  are 
always  lawyers.  They  are  almost  always  honest  and 
fair-minded  men,  who  feel  keenly  the  sacredness  of 
their  duly.  There  is  a  (j(H)d  deal  of  difference  of  opin- 
ion as  to  whether  they  slioald  be  elected  or  appointed.  1 1 
is  generally  admit  led  that  the  salaries  of  trial  judges 
are  too  low.  Long  terms  and  good  salaries  help  to 
make  judgeships  attractive  to  good  lawyers. 

Lawyers  and  trials.  Our  system  of  trying  cases 
would  nol  work  al  all  without  lawyers.  They  are,  of 
course,  paid  Ivy  tiie  pai'lies  whom  they  represent,  but 
they  are,  nevertheless,  really  officers  of  the  court.  A 
trial  is  a  kind  of  debate  between  the  plaintiff  and  the 
defendant  or  Ivetween  the  slate  and  the  accused. 
Each  side  is  supposed  to  try,  honorably,  to  present  its 
case  in  the  most  favorable  ligld.  The  attorney  for  the 
plaintiff  or  the  district  attorney  ojkmis  the  trial  with 
a  statement  of  the  case  of  his  client.  He  then  calls 
the  witnesses  for  his  side.  Witnesses  can  testify  only 
in  answ(T  to  questions.  When  the  attorney  for  the 
plaintiir  has  finished  questioning  each  of  his  wit- 
nesses, the  attorney  for  the  defendant  "cross-exam- 
ines" him.    A  clever  cross-examiner  can  make  it  very 


226  Loyal  Ciiizenship 

iinconifortable  for  a  witness  \\\\o  tries  to  conceal  the 
truth.  When  the  witnesses  for  the  plaintiff  have  all 
been  examined,  the  attorney  for  the  defendant  states 
his  case  and  calls  his  witnesses.  W  hen  he  is  through, 
the  attorney  on  each  side  argues  his  case  to  the  jury. 
Out  of  this  contest  comes  the  truth.  A  criminal  case 
is  conducted  much  the  same  as  a  civil  case,  the  public 
being  regarded  as  the  plaintifT. 

Many  a  case  that  gets  into  court  might  have  been 
settled  between  the  parties  themselves,  if  either  one 
or  both  of  them  had  been  well  advised.  A  large  part 
of  the  w  ork  of  lawyers  consists  in  advising  their  cli- 
ents how  to  keep  out  of  court.  The  lawyer's  profession 
is  a  very  noble  one  if  he  wishes  to  make  it  so. 

The  grand  jury.  When  a  person  is  arrested  for  a 
serious  crnne,  he  is  first  "arraigned"  before  a  justice 
of  the  peace  (or  police  judge),  who  if  he  believes  there 
is  sufficient  evidence  to  justify  the  charge  sends  the 
accused  back  to  jail.  Except  in  murder  cases  the 
accused  may  be  released  on  hail.  This  consists  of 
money  or  of  a  bond  made  secure  by  the  signatures  of 
men  of  property.  A  bond  provides  that  a  specified 
sum  of  money  will  be  forfeited  to  the  state  if  the 
accused  does  not  appear  when  wanted.  The  evidence 
against  him  is  then,  in  most  states,  presented  to  the 
grand  jury  for  preliminary  investigation.  This  body 
consists  of  from  twelve  to  twenty-three  persons  more 
carefully  selected  than  trial  jurors  ordinarily  are.  If 
the  grand  jury  believes  there  is  probable  cause  of 
guilt,  it  returns  a  true  bill  or  indictment.  It  also 
investigates  on  its  own  initiative  any  matter  within 


Inlerpreling  and  .  [pplyiny  Law 


227 


the  c'oiinly  about  which  there  is  a  suggestion  of 
crime.  Parlicukirly,  the  grand  jury  goes  over  tlie 
work  of  all  county  and  other  public  oflicers,  and  if  it 
finds  anything  wrong  calls  allenlion  to  the  matter  in 
its  report.  If  there  has  been  grafting,  it  indicts  the 
guilty  oflicial.  The  grand  jury,  therefore,  is  a  very 
important  means  of  preventing  bad  government. 

In  somestates  the  district  attorney  deciders  whether 
or  not  to  prosecute  without  action  by  a  grand  jury. 

Courts  of  appeal.  There  is  in  each  state  a  highest 
court,  which  is  usually  known  as  the  supreme  court, 
though  it  is  sometimes  called  the  "court  of  errors" 
or  the  "appellate  court."  This  court  has  the  last 
word  on  all  questions  of  law  that  are  made  the  subject 
of  appeal  from  the  decisions  of  lower  courts.  (The 
jacls  are  finally  settled  in  the  lower  courts.)  Some- 
times there  are  lesser  courts  of  appeal  between  the 
trial  court  and  the  highest  state  court.  Courts  of 
appeal  consist  of  several  judges,  all  of  whom  may 
take  part  in  rendering  the  decision.  Supreme-court 
and  other  appellate  judges  are  usually  elected  by 
the  people,  but  the  terms  are  long  and  nu'leclion 
is  very  common.  The  position  of  a  supreme-court 
judge  is  a  very  dignified  and  honorable  one. 

The  Federal  courts.  The  Constitution  and  laws 
of  the  L  niled  States  being  the  supreme  law  of  the 
land,  it  is  tlie  duty  of  slate  courts  to  a{)ply  them  in 
every  case  where  they  are  involved.  The  United 
States,  however,  does  not  depend  entirely  upon  the 
state  courts.  Any  case  arising  under  the  Constitu- 
tion, laws,  or  treaties  of  the  United  States  may  be 


228 


Loyal  Citizenship 


p  20 


CA3    u 


2       U! 


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is 


Interpreting  and  Applyuuj  Law  229 

begun  ill  I  lie  Federal  courts  hy  I  he  plaint  ifT,  as  may 
any  case  between  citizens  of  dilTerent  stales;  or  the 
defendant  may  liave  any  sucli  case  transferred  from  a 
state  court  to  the  proper  Federal  court.  Admiralty 
cases — that  is,  cases  involving  navigation — are  al- 
ways tried  in  the  Federal  courts. 

Ihe  lowest  United  States  court  is  known  as  the 
district  court.  It  is  the  trial  court  for  practically 
all  Federal  cases.  There  is  at  least  one  such  court 
in  each  state.  For  each  United  States  district  court 
there  is  a  district  judge  (or  more  than  one),  a  district 
attorney,  and  a  United  States  marslial.  The  latter 
is  an  officer  corresponding  to  the  sherifT. 

Above  the  district  court  comes  the  United  States 
circuit  court  of  appeals,  and  its  decision  is  final  in  all 
cases  except  those  involving  extremely  important 
matters.  (There  are  nine  United  States  circuit  courts 
of  appeals.) 

Tlie  Supreme  Court  of  tiie  United  States  stands  at 
the  head  of  the  judicial  branch  of  our  government. 
It  consists  of  a  chief  justice  and  eight  associate 
justices.  It  is  our  highest  court  of  appeals,  and  it 
has  the  final  word  in  every  case  whose  settlement 
requires  an  interpretation  of  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States. 

The  judges  of  all  United  States  courts  are  ap- 
pointed by  the  President  for  life  and.  like  the  Presi- 
dejit,  can  be  removed  only  on  inipeacluuent  and  con- 
viction. An  impeachment  is  begun  by  resolution 
of  the  House  of  Representatives,  and  trial  takes 
place  before  the  Senate. 


'2'M)  Loyal  Citizenship 

The  Supreme  Court  and  the  Constitution.  The 
Supreme  Gourl  is  I  he  chief  guardian  of  the  Constitu- 
tion of  the  United  States.  It  has  repeatedly  held 
that  an  act  of  Congress  in  violation  of  the  Constitu- 
tion simply  did  not  become  law.  It  does  not  hesi- 
tate to  declare  provisions  of  state  constitutions  or 
state  statutes  void  if  they  conflict  with  the  Constitu- 
tion. If  a  state  court  upholds  a  state  law  as  against 
the  Constitution,  an  appeal  may  be  taken  to  the 
Supreme  Court.  Furthermore,  the  Supreme  Court 
exercises  the  power  to  compel  a  state  court  to  transfer 
to  it  any  case  involving  the  Constitution.  There  is, 
therefore,  no  danger  that  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States  may  mean  one  thing  in  one  state  and 
another  in  another,  or  that  the  local  sentiment  of  a 
state  may  affect  the  interpretation  of  the  national 
Constitution.  Such  a  power  as  is  possessed  by  the 
Supreme  Court  is  absolutely  necessary  to  safeguard  the 
Constitution  and  to  prevent  the  confusion  that  would 
arise  through  conflicting  decisions  in  ttie  courts  of  dif- 
ferent states. 

Respect  for  law.  We  have  already  seen  that  obe- 
dience to  law  is  one  of  the  principal  duties  of  a  citi- 
zen. Respect  for  the  law  and  for  the  courts  which 
apply  it  is  absolutely  necessary  to  the  peace  and  good 
order  of  our  country.  If  laws  are  bad,  they  should  be 
repealed  or  amended.  If  judges  are  corrupt,  they 
should  be  replaced  by  honest  men.  The  means  for 
doing  this  is  in  the  hands  of  the  people.  The  final 
responsibility  for  bad  laws  or  bad  judges  rests  with 
them. 


InlerpreliiKj  anil    \jjplyin(j  Ldir  '2'M 

QUESTIONS 

Explain  I  he  iuifKirtance  of  having  courts.  \N  hat  is  the  dilFerencc 
between  a  civil  and  a  criminal  case?  W  hat  three  great  rights  does 
the  law  protect ■>  What  remedies  do  the  courts  give  for  injury  to 
these  rights:'  W  hat  is  a  crimeP  Why  does  the  law  punish  criniinals? 
Why  is  lynching  murder!*  \N  hat  is  its  ell'ect  ufM)n  law?  \\  hat  is  a 
jury?  \\  hat  is  the  part  of  the  judge  in  a  trial?  How  are  state  judges 
chosen?  Iv\j)lain  the  i)art  of  the  lawyer  at  a  trial.  Describe  the 
duties  of  the  grand  jury.  \\  hat  are  courts  of  appeal?  W  hy  does  the 
United  States  have  courts  .separate  from  those  of  the  states?  Name 
the  Federal  courts.  How  do  Federal  judges  obtain  their  positions, 
and  for  what  period  may  they  hold  them?  Explain  the  relation  of  the 
United  States  Supreme  Court  to  the  Constitution.  State  why  respect 
for  law  is  so  im{)ortanl. 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  judicial  organization  of  your  own  state  should  be  the  subject 
of  several  topics.  See  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and 
Politics;  MuNRO,  W.  B.,  The  Government  of  the  United  Slates; 
Rein.sch,  p.  S.,  Readings  on  American  Stale  Government;  Bryce, 
James,  The  American  Commonweallh;  Wilson,  Woodrow,  Conslila- 
lional  (jovcrnmenl  in  the  United  States;  Reed,  T.  H..  Form  and 
Functions  of  American  Government,  Chapter  l.'J. 

On  the  actual  working  of  trials  see  Wellman,  F.  L.,  The  Art  of 
Cross  Examination  and  .1  Day  in  Court;  Train,  Arthur,  Courts, 
Criminals,  and  the  Camorra. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Visit  a  court  actually  engaged  in  trying  a  case.  A  mock  trial  in 
which  the  essential  features  of  court  procedure  are  observed  will  be 
interesting  and  profitable.  It  will  not  be  dillicult  to  get  the  assistance 
of  a  lawyer,  whom  some  member  of  the  class  may  know,  to  act  as 
adviser  in  planning  the  trial. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY 

Territories  and  Dependencies — The 
District  of  Columbia 

The  Ordinance  of  1787.  The  United  States  has 
always  had  under  its  control  lands  and  peoples  not 
comprised  within  the  limits  of  any  state.  The  first 
territory  to  be  organized  was  the  Northwest  Terri- 
tory, lying  west  of  the  Alleghenies  and  north  of  the 
Ohio  River.  The  Congress  of  the  Confederation  in 
1787  passed  an  Ordinance  for  the  govermnent  of  this 
territory,  which  has  been  a  model  for  territorial 
government  ever  since.  This  ordinance  provided 
that  the  territory  should  have  a  governor,  a  secre- 
tary, and  three  judges,  to  be  appointed  by  the  central 
government;  also  that  as  soon  as  the  population  had 
increased  sufficiently  there  should  be  estabUshed  an 
elective  territorial  legislature.  It  further  guaranteed 
to  the  people  of  the  territory  religious  freedom,  the 
privilege  of  habeas  corpus,  and  trial  by  jury. 

Attitude  toward  territorial  government.  For 
nearly  a  century,  as  our  people  pushed  westward, 
territory  after  territory  was  organized.  Only  two  of 
the  Western  states,  Texas  and  California,  came  into 
the  Union  without  having  been  organized  as  terri- 
tories. Territorial  government  ivas  regarded  merely  as 
a  preparation  for  statehood,  and  for  this  reason  the 
people  were  willing  to  submit  to  a  government  in 
which  their  governor  and  judges  were  appointed  by 
the  President.  Of  course,  in  territories  that  had  been 
organized  for  any  length  of  time  the  people  chose 
their  own  legislatures.    The  entire  area  of  the  United 

232 


Territories  and  Dependencies  233 

States  on  tiic  coiillnent  of  \ortli  America,  except 
Alaska,  lias  now  been  made  into  states. 

Later  expansion.  It  is  only  since  the  purchase  of 
Alaska  in  lo67  that  the  I  nited  States  has  come  to 
exercise  aulhorily  over  distant  lands.  Hawaii  was 
annexed  in  1898,  Alaska  and  Hawaii  are  governed 
as  territories.  As  a  result  of  the  war  with  Spain  the 
United  States  acquired  Porto  Rico,  the  Philippines, 
and  Guam.  In  1900  we  obtained  possession  of 
Tutuila,  one  of  the  Samoan  Islands,  In  1901  the 
Canal  Zone  became  essentially  a  part  of  the  United 
States.  In  1914  we  bought  the  ^  irgin  Islands  from 
Denmark,  the  people  voting  in  favor  of  the  change  in 
sovereignty. 

Porto  Rico.  In  Porto  Rico  the  governor  is  ap- 
pointed by  the  President,  and  he  in  turn  appoints 
the  heads  of  most  of  the  executive  departments. 
The  two  houses  of  the  legislature  are  elected  by  the 
people.  The  governor  has  a  veto  which  may  be 
overcome  by  a  two-thirds  vote  of  both  houses.  All 
laws  passed  over  his  veto  must  be  submitted  to 
Washington,  where  the  President  has  the  power  to 
annul  them.  The  people  of  Porto  Rico  elect  one 
detegate  to  our  House  of  Representatives,  who, 
liowever.  has  no  vote.  In  1898  practically  all  the 
people  of  Porto  Rico  spoke  Spanish.  The  American 
govermnent  has  installed  a  splendid  system  of  public 
schools  for  the  island,  and  its  people  are  being  trained 
in  the  English  language  and  in  democratic  ideas,  and 
are  being  prepared  to  take  charge  of  tlieir  own  govern- 
ment. 


234 


Loyal  Citizenship 


"     6C>-H 


Territories  and  Dependencies  2'^7> 

Philippine  Islands.  The  Philippine  Islands  are  a 
very  large  archipelago  inhabited  by  a  number  of 
nearly  related  groups  of  Malayan  people.  In  the 
Philippines,  as  in  Porto  Rico,  the  greatest  achieve- 
ment under  the  American  government  has  been  the 
establishment  of  an  admirable  system  of  schools. 
We  have  recognized  that  there  is  no  way  in  which  a 
people  can  be  prepared  for  freedom  so  well  as  by 
education.  In  the  Philippines  there  is  a  governor- 
general  appointed  by  the  President.  He  appoints 
the  heads  of  the  executive  departments  (except  the 
Insular  auditor,  who  is  appointed  by  the  President). 
The  governor-general  possesses  a  veto  power  which 
the  legislature  cannot  override  without  the  approval 
of  the  President.  1  he  senate  consists  of  twenty-four 
members  elected  by  the  people  and  two  (from  non- 
Christian  districts)  appointed  by  the  governor- 
general.  The  lower  house  is  made  up  of  eiglity-one 
elected  and  nine  appointed  members.  Two  delegates 
from  the  Philippines,  without  votes,  sit  in  the  House 
of  Representatives  at  Washington.  The  actual 
direction  of  affairs  in  the  PhiHppines  has  latterly- 
rested  largely  with  a  Council  of  State  consisting  of 
the  heads  of  departments  and  the  })resi(liiig  ofhcers 
of  the  two  houses.  They  are  all  Filipinos  and  belong 
to  the  majority  party  in  the  legislature.  In  this 
way  the  people  have  been  given  a  form  of  self- 
government. 

In  Tutuila  the  government  is  in  the  hands  of  a 
naval  officer  appointed  by  the  Secretary  of  the  ?savy. 
The  same  system  exists  in  Guam  and  in  several 


236 


Loyal  Citizenship 


U.  S.  N.  Official  PhotograpU 

Fig.  100.   The  naval  governor  of  Samoa,  and  some  of  the  people 
over  whom  he  rules  in  the  name  of  the  United  States. 


very  small  islands  that  we  hold  in  the  Pacific.  The 
Virgin  Islands  also  are  under  the  care  of  the  Navy 
Department, 

Among  the  important  questions  before  the  Ameri- 
can people  today  are  those  concerning  the  disposition 
of  some  of  our  dependencies,  particularly  of  the 
Philippines.  Our  government  is  founded  upon  the 
idea  that  governments  derive  their  just  powers  from 
the  consent  of  the  governed.  How  can  it,  then, 
consistently  rule  over  subject  peoples.^  Such  depen- 
dencies, however,  came  to  us  in  a  way  that  did  not 
permit  us  to  avoid  caring  for  them.  To  turn  them 
adrift  before  they  were  prepared  to  govern  themselves  ^ 
would  be  to  shirk  our  clear  duty. 


The  District  of  Cotumbia  237 

The  District  of  Columbia.  The  founders  of  our 
goveriiineut  llioujzlit  ihat  il  would  be  umvise  for  the 
capital  of  the  United  States  to  be  ivithin  tlie  territory  of 
any  state.  They,  therefore,  provided  in  the  Con- 
stitution for  a  Federal  district  in  which  there  should 
be  no  authority  except  that  of  the  United  States. 
This  district  was  created  by  the  cession  from  Mrginia 
and  Maryland  of  a  piece  of  territory  ten  miles  square 
lying  on  both  banks  of  the  Potomac.  The  lower 
portion  of  the  original  district  was  afterward  given 
back  to  Mrginia,  so  that  the  present  District  of 
Columbia  represents  only  the  cession  from  Maryland. 
Its  laws  are  made  and  its  taxes  are  levied  by  Congress 
itself.  The  carrying  out  of  these  laws  is  left  to  a 
commission  of  three  members  appointed  by  the  Presi- 
dent, each  of  whom  has  charge  of  a  group  of  depart- 
ments of  the  government.  The  people  living  within 
the  District  have  no  voice  in  even  theu-  local  affairs 
and  cannot  vote  for  President  of  the  United  States 
or  for  members  of  Congress.  They  are  not  satisfied 
with  this  situation,  and  there  is  a  movement  on  foot 
to  have  it  remedied. 

QUESTIONS 

What  was  the  Northwest  Territory?  Tell  about  the  Ordinance  of 
1787.  What  is  the  diireronce  between  the  old  expansion  of  the 
United  States  and  the  expansion  since  1867?  \\  hat  form  of  govern- 
ment have  Alaska  and  Hawaii?  Describe  the  government  of  Porto 
Rico.  Describe  the  government  of  the  Philippine  Islands.  How 
are  Guam,  the  Virgin  Islands,  and  Tutuila  governed?  Why  is  the 
question  of  the  disposition  of  some  of  oiu-  dependencies  a  diflicult 
one?  How  was  tlie  District  of  Columbia  formed?  Describe  its 
government. 


238  Loyal  Citizenship 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

Your  own  state's  history  before  it  became  a  state.  The  several 
dependencies:  their  geography,  people,  history,  and  government. 
There  is  a  dearth  of  up-to-date  books  on  the  government  of  our 
dependencies,  but  there  is  a  good  deal  of  magazine  literature  on  the 
subject.  See  Kimball,  Everett,  The  Nalional  Government  of  the 
United  States;  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions  of  American 
Government,  Chapter  26. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

The  following  subject  will  be  an  excellent  one  for  debate  in  your 
legislatively  organized  class:  Besolved,  That  the  United  States  should 
within  one  year  grant  complete  independence  to  the  Philippine 
Islands. 


PART  FIVE 
SOINIE  PROBLEMS  OF  LARGER   CITIZENSHIP 
Cooperation  for  the  Common  Good 


My  city  and  country,  so  far  as  I  am 
Antoninus,  is  Rome,  but  so  far  as  I  am  a 
man,  it  is  the  world. 

Marcus  Aurelius  Antoninus 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-OXE 
Problems  of  Labor 

The  marketability  of  labor.  If  a  farmer  with  a 
thousand  busliels  of  wheat  to  sell  cannot  get  wliat 
he  considers  a  fair  price  for  it,  he  may  liold  it  for  a 
better  market.  If  he  sells  his  wheat  six  weeks  later, 
even  for  the  price  originally  offered,  his  loss  will  be 
but  slight:  there  will  be  the  loss  of  interest  for  six 
weeks,  and  perhaps  a  little  shrinkage  in  the  grain. 
A  worker,  however,  who  holds  back  his  labor  sulTers 
a  total  loss  of  wages.  Labor  not  used  can  never  be 
recovered,  and  few  workers  have  money  savings 
that  will  enable  them  to  remain  long  unemployed 
without  suffering.  Consequently,  the  individual 
worker  cannot  bargain  with  an  employer  for  wages 
as  a  trader  can  bargain  with  his  customers.  Unless 
there  is  an  actual  shortage  of  the  kind  of  labor 
he  can  perform,  the  laborer  must — in  a  free  labor 
market — accept  the  terms  that  are  ofTered  him. 
This  is  peculiarly  true  of  the  least  skilled  workers. 
The  individual  worker  in  a  shoe  factory  who  is 
trained  only  to  fasten  on  heels  is  helpless,  because 
there  are  relatively  few  places  that  demand  his 
special  services. 

Unions.  The  weakness  of  workers  in  bargaining 
as  individuals  has  led  to  the  formation  of  "unions" 
tlirough  which  workers  may  bargain  collectively 
or  as  a  unit.  It  makes  little  difference  to  a  large 
employer  if  a  single  worker  quits  because  the  wages, 
hours,  or  working  conditions  do  not  satisfy  him. 
If,  however,  all  his  employees  quit  at  once,  it  is  a 

241 


242  Loyal  Citizenship 

different  matter.  He  may  have  orders  to  fill  which 
if  not  filled  will  mean  great  loss,  perhaps  ruin, 
to  him.  He  may  have  on  hand  partly  worked  or 
perishable  materials  which  will  be  wasted  if  the 
factory  must  shut  down.  Such  concerted  quitting 
is  called  a  strike,  and  it  is  the  commonest  weapon  of 
organized  labor. 

The  earliest  unions  were  associations  of  men  of  the 
same  craft  or  trade.  Such  associations  are  still  the 
usual  fonn  of  union  in  the  United  States.  The  local 
unions  in  each  trade  are  united  with  all  the  other 
locals  in  the  same  trade  in  great  national  organiza- 
tions like  the  Brotherhood  of  Locomotive  Engineers. 
All  the  unions  in  a  city  usually  are  represented  in  a 
central  labor  council  which  looks  out  for  common 
union  interests  in  the  city.  Most  of  the  trades  are 
united  in  the  American  Federation  of  Labor,  or, 
like  the  railway  brotherhoods,  work  in  harmony 
with  it. 

Some  progress  has  been  made  in  recent  years  in 
organizing  all  workers,  especially  the  unskilled,  in 
unions  for  each  industry  irrespective  of  the  trade  or 
kind  of  work  of  each  man.  These  industrial  unions 
are  much  more  radical  than  the  trades  unions. 
They  are  not  generally  afTiliated  with  the  American 
Federation  of  Labor.  Most  radical  is  the  movement 
which  proposes  to  organize  all  workers  in  "one  big 
union."  Its  object  is  the  overthrow  of  our  govern- 
ment and  social  order  by  a  general  strike  or  other 
violent  means. 

Unions  and  labor  monopoly.     The  trades  unions 


Problems  of  Labor 


213 


Cartoon  by  J.  .V.  Darlimj 

Via.  101.    W lion  ("qjitiil  iuid  labor  quarrel  both  sulTer, 
and  so  docs  the  whole  conimunity. 

are  always  trying  lo  gel  a  monopoly  of  the  supply 
of  labor  in  their  respective  trades.  To  this  end  they 
sometimes  limit  the  number  of  apprentices  (boys 
who  are  to  learn  the  trade),  and  they  often  demand 
that  none  but  union  men  be  emj)loyed  in  th<nr  trade. 
When  they  succeed  in  excluding  non-union  men  al- 
together, we  speak  of  the  trade  as  one  in  which 
closed  shop  conditions  exist.  Many  em]jloyers  deny 
the  right  of  the  unions  to  insist  upon  tiie  closed 
shop.  They  say  thai  employers  have  the  riijfit  fo  hire 
whom  they  please  and  that  a   worker  has  a  right  to 


244  Loyal  Citizenship 

join  a  union  or  not  as  he  pleases.  This  is  perfectly 
true  and  is  in  entire  accordance  with  the  principles 
of  liberty  we  have  discussed  before.  On  the  other 
hand,  the  union  man  has  an  undoubted  right  to  refuse 
to  work  in  the  same  strop  ivith  non-union  men.  This 
problem,  like  many  others,  cannot  be  solved  by  in- 
sistence on  rights.  It  can  only  be  worked  out  in  a 
spirit  of  cooperation  for  the  common  good  (Fig.  101), 

Keeping  up  production.  The  purpose  of  the  part- 
nership of  labor  and  capital  is  production.  This 
fundamental  fact  should  never  be  lost  sight  of  in 
considering  the  labor  problem.  With  the  efforts  of 
organized  labor  to  get  good  wages,  reasonable  hours 
of  work,  and  wholesome  and  sanitary  surroundings, 
every  one  should  sympathize.  All  these  things 
should  aid  rather  than  hinder  production.  Better 
living  conditions  for  workers  promote  health,  educa- 
tion, and  greater  efficiency. 

Unions  sometimes  make  rules  to  limit  the  amount 
of  work  a  man  shall  do  in  a  day.  Their  usual  expla- 
nation for  such  action  is  that  the  employer  is  trying 
to  force  work  at  a  speed  injurious  to  the  worker — 
a  wrong  that  sometimes  exists.  Occasionally,  how- 
ever, the  hmit  placed  by  the  union  rule  is  far  below 
what  a  normal  man  might  well  be  able  to  do.  Further, 
by  defending  lazy  and  incapable  union  men  from 
discharge,  the  unions  sometimes  encourage  slack 
work.  That  is  not  playing  fair.  Furthermore,  the 
workers  themselves  cannot  escape  the  effects  of 
under-production  and  the  high  prices  that  it  neces- 
sarily causes.     There  are  not  nearly  enough  good 


Problems  of  Labor  245 

things  produced  to  meet  the  wants  of  all  of  us.  Of 
the  total  of  good  things  that  are  prod  need,  the  ivorkers, 
as  a  whole,  get  by  far  the  larger  share.  Increased 
production,  then,  means  greater  comfort  for  all,  and 
especially  for  the  ivorkers. 

Government  and  labor  disputes.  The  duty  of 
govennnent  with  regard  to  a  dispute  among  its 
people  is  to  keep  the  peace  and  to  prevent  a  resort  to 
violence  or  any  unfair  practice  by  either  party.  In  the 
case  of  disputes  between  capital  and  labor,  it  has 
not  been  very  successful  in  fulliliing  (hat  duty. 
Actual  violence  is  usually  checked  before  it  has  been 
carried  very  far.  If  the  municipal  or  county  authori- 
ties cannot  keep  order,  the  governor  may  send  state 
troops,  and  if  these  fail.  United  States  troops  may 
be  brought  in.  The  law  in  many  states  forbids 
strikers  from  picketing — that  is,  posting  men  or 
women  about  a  factory  or  store  to  remonstrate  with 
workers  or  customers  who  are  on  the  way  in.  In 
every  state  an  agreement  by  union  men  not  to  buy 
the  goods  of  a  particular  manufacturer  or  merchant — 
the  boycott — is  illegal. 

Such  negative  interference  with  labor  disputes 
has  done  little  to  lessen  their  number  or  bitterness; 
rather  the  contrary,  because  the  interference  usually 
lessens  the  chance  of  success  of  the  union  men  and, 
as  a  result,  arouses  their  resentment.  Suppose  your 
father  and  a  neighbor  had  a  dispute  over  the  loca- 
tion of  a  fence  between  their  two  places.  They 
would  not  be  allowed  to  fight  it  out  on  the  front 
lawn,  but  the  law  would  permit  them  to  be  heard  in 


246  Loyal  Citizenship 

court  and  to  have  a  just  decision.  Because  there  is 
provision  for  setthng  disputes  between  individuals, 
there  is  much  less  temptation  for  them  to  break  the 
peace.  Just  so,  some  more  practicable  means  of 
settling  disputes  between  the  groups  of  labor  and 
capital  will  have  to  be  worked  out,  before  we  can 
effectively  protect  the  public  from  the  deplorable 
results  of  their  quarreling.  The  most  interesting 
attempt  in  this  direction  has  been  in  Kansas,  where 
the  law  requires  that  labor  disputes  be  submitted  to 
an  Industrial  Court. 

Child  labor.  Every  one  recognizes  that  the  pro- 
tection of  the  law  should  in  justice  be  thrown  around 
those  who  cannot  protect  themselves.  Chief  among 
these  are  the  children.  There  is  a  further  reason  for 
protecting  them  in  the  fact  that  their  health,  educa- 
tion, and  character  determine  the  future  of  our 
country.  It  does  not  hurt  children  to  work;  in  fact, 
children  who  have  some  regular  work  outside  of 
school  hours  are  the  better  for  it.  But  keeping  a 
child  at  hard  or  confining  work  during  many  hours 
a  day  is  destructive  of  his  health  and  interferes 
seriously  with  his  chance  to  get  an  education.  Many 
states  have  adopted  laws  that  forbid  the  labor  of  children 
in  factories,  shops,  mines,  and  stores  until  they  are  old 
enough  at  least  to  have  finished  grammar  school. 
Such  laws  should  exist  in  all  states. 

Other  labor  legislation.  For  the  further  protec- 
tion of  women  and  children  in  industry,  most  of  our 
states  have  enacted  laws  limiting  their  Jiours  of  labor, 
providing  for  the  estabhshment  of  a  minimum  wage. 


Problems  of  Labor 


247 


/;  Timex 


Fig.  102.    In  spitn  of  obstack's,  there  is  a  giowiiij^  tendency  toward 
mutual  resi)eet  between  capital  and  labor. 

and  prescribing  sanitary  regulations  for  places  of 
employment.  Laws  have  also  been  passed  fixing 
the  time  and  method  {or  payment  of  wages,  requiring 
safety  appliances  to  be  used  about  machinery,  and 
protecting  workers  in  general.  Labor  legislation 
should  be  carefully  planned  and  w  orked  out  so  as  to 
protect  the  worker  and  at  the  same  time  preserve, 
as  far  as  possible,  the  liberty  of  Ihe  employer. 

"Workmen's  compensation.  Accidents  are  bound 
to  occur  in  the  conduct  of  any  industry,  their  number 
varying  with  the  nature  of  the  industry  itself.  Some 
industries  have  few  accidents;  but  others,  like 
railroading  and  the  building  of  steel  skyscrapers, 


248  Loyal  Citizenship 

have  a  great  many.  Formerly,  if  an  employee  were 
injm-ed  he  could  recover  from  his  employer  only  by 
an  action  at  law  in  which  he  had  to  prove  the  em- 
ployer's fault  and  the  absence  of  fault  on  his  own 
part.  Now,  in  many  of  our  states  the  employer 
must  pay  compensation  in  a  moderate  amount 
irrespective  of  the  fault  of  the  parties.  There  is 
also  a  Federal  Employers'  Liability  Law  providing 
compensation  on  account  of  accidents  to  employees 
of  interstate  railroads.  Such  laws  have  been  enacted 
because  it  is  considered  that  the  injuries  are  incident 
to  the  industry,  and  that  the  employer  ought  to 
care  for  broken  lives  as  weU  as  replace  broken 
machinery.  Employers  were  at  first  bitterly  opposed 
to  the  establishment  of  workmen's  compensation, 
but  they  now  generally  accept  it  as  reasonable  and 
just. 

QUESTIONS 

What  becomes  of  unused  labor?  What  effect  would  a  reserve  of 
savings  have  upon  the  position  of  a  worker  bargaining  to  get  the 
best  pay  for  his  labor?  Can  you  give  examples?  How  do  unions 
assist  workers  in  bargaining?  What  are  trades  unions?  How  are 
they  organized?  What  is  the  American  Federation  of  Labor?  What 
are  industrial  unions?  How  do  unions  seek  to  increase  their  mono- 
poly of  labor?  What  is  the  closed  shop?  What  is  the  employer's 
argument  against  it?  What  are  the  rights  involved?  What  is  the 
object  to  which  the  united  efforts  of  labor  and  capital  should  be 
directed?  What  effects  may  higher  wages  and  shorter  hours  have? 
What  can  be  said  in  favor  of  setting  a  low  limit  on  what  a  worker  may 
do?  What  can  be  said  against  it?  In  what  ways  does  government 
interfere  in  disputes  between  labor  and  capital?  What  has  such ' 
interference  accomplished?  Under  what  conditions  is  work  bad  for 
children?  What  are  the  results?  What  is  done  to  regulate  or  prevent 
child  labor?    What  other  laws  for  the  benefit  of  women  and  children 


Problems  of  LaJ)or  249 

workers  can  yoii  iiicntioii.'  for  \v(jrk<'rs  in  j,'<'n('r;il.'  W  linl  is  iIk;  duly 
of  governinoiit  in  the  matter  of  lal)or  le^rislation.'  J^\{)iain  "work- 
men's compensation." 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  child-labor  and  other  labor  laws  of  your  own  state,  and  the 
authf)rities  specially  charped  with  carrying;  them  out. 

l\ej)orts  may  be  |)rolitably  made  on  the  hisl(jry  of  local  strikes  or 
on  the  organization  of  the  central  labor  council  of  your  city.  Inter- 
views with  union  leaders  and  employers  on  the  closed  or  the  open 
shop  and  on  limitation  of  output  will  prove  interesting. 

See  Ely  andW  iCKEnand  other  standard  economics  tcvxts;  Bogart, 
E.  L.,  The  Economic  History  of  the  Urtiled  States;  Commons  and 
Andrews,  Principles  of  Labor  Legislation;  Mitchell,  John, 
Organized  Labor;  Beard,  C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics; 
Carlton,  T.  T.,  History  and  Problems  of  Organized  Labor;  Reed, 
T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions  of  American  Government,  Chapter  37. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

A  visit  to  a  meeting  of  the  central  labor  council  of  your  city.  A 
debate  on  the  Closed  or  the  Open  Shop,  on  ("omj)ulsory  Arbitration, 
or  on  the  Kansas  Industrial  Court.  Addresses  on  succeeding  days 
by  a  labor-imion  oflicial  and  an  employer  (care  should  be  exercised 
to  select  moderate  men). 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-TWO 
The  Care  of  Delinquents  and  Defectives 

Public  charges.  One  of  the  most  burdensome 
duties  of  government,  local,  state,  and  Federal,  is 
that  of  caring  for  criminal,  feeble-minded,  insane, 
and  otherwise  helpless  or  defective  individuals.  Here 
are  people  who  will  not  or  cannot  help  to  carry  the 
load  of  life,  but  themselves  have  to  be  carried. 
Many  of  them  if  uiu-estrained  would  be  very  danger- 
ous to  the  rest  of  us.  Socially  speaking,  criminality, 
feeble-mindedness,  and  insanity  are  all  the  result  of 
the  same  causes.  Drink,  immorality,  bad  food,  and 
bad  living  conditions  produce  diseases  of  mind  and 
body.  A  powerful  factor  in  accounting  for  delinquency 
is  bad  heredity. 

Criminals.  Most  persons  who  commit  crime  do  so 
because  they  have  not  the  intelligence  or  strength 
of  will  to  conduct  themselves  as  they  should.  Never- 
theless, it  is  necessary  for  the  protection  of  the 
community  that  crime  be  punished.  The  fear  of 
punishment  has  a  wholesome  effect  in  keeping 
criminally  disposed  people  from  breaking  the  law. 
There  is,  however,  no  more  reason  for  feeling  revenge- 
ful toward  criminals  than  toward  insane  persons; 
both  are  defective.  We  should  keep  habitual  crim- 
inals in  prison  in  order  that  they  may  not  harm  law- 
abiding  citizens.  Those  who  seem  capable  of  reform 
should  be  given  another  chance  in  life;  but  their 
punishment  should  be  sufficient  to  serve  as  a  warn- 
ing to  others  who  may  be  tempted  to  break  the 
law. 

250 


Care  of  Delinquents  and  Defeclires        23 1 

Prisons  and  reformatories.  Only  a  few  years  ago 
all  persons  convicted  of  serious  crimes  were  sent  to 
prison,  irrespective  of  age  or  other  condition.  There 
the  young  and  comparatively  innocent  were  cor- 
rupted by  having  to  associate  witli  liardened  crim- 
inals. Now  only  adult  wrongdoers  go  to  prison. 
Young  persons  are  sent  to  rcfornidlories  or  "reform 
schools."  In  some  states  such  adult  offenders  as  are 
not  confirmed  criminals  are  sent  to  special  institu- 
tions. But  even  the  best  of  our  reformatories  often 
prove  to  be  schools  of  crime. 

Probation.  \Mse  judges,  therefore,  hesitate  to 
send  any  one  to  a  prison  or  reformatory  except  as  a 
last  resort.  If  there  is  a  chance  that  a  convicted 
person  will  do  what  is  right  in  the  future,  they  will, 
in  many  cases,  admit  him  to  probation.  He  then 
has  to  report  frequently  to  the  judge  or  to  a  proba- 
tion officer  and  follow  the  directions  given  him. 
The  home  of  the  offender  and  tiie  conditions  under 
which  he  works  are  studied  and,  if  possible,  improved. 
By  wise  guidance  the  life  of  an  entire  family  may  be 
readjusted.  It  costs  about  ten  times  as  much  to 
send  a  man  to  prison  for  a  year  as  to  put  him  on 
probation  for  the  same  time.  If  he  has  a  family,  he 
can  go  on  earning  the  family  living  instead  of  leaving 
his  dep(Midents  to  be  supported  by  charity. 

Juvenile  courts.  Children  sometimes  conmiit 
petty  crimes  more  through  mistake  than  through 
malice,  and  in  such  cases  it  is  cruel  to  brand  them  as 
criminals  or  to  make  them  associate  with  criminals. 
Therefore  special  juvenile  courts  have  been  created. 


252 


Loyal  Citizenship 


Fig.  J03.  Judi^e  Lindsey  holding  court.  Boys  liave  found  in  the 
Judge  a  trusting  and  trustwortfiy  friend.  Even  when  he  finds  it 
necessary  to  order  a  boy  to  the  industrial  school  at  Golden,  Colorado, 
the  Judge  sends  him  unattended.  Very  few  boys  have  betrayed  this 
trust. 

A  child,  if  arrested,  is  not  confined  in  jail  but  in  a 
detention  home.  He  meets  the  judge  in  his  office, 
not  in  a  crowded  courtroom;  and  the  judge  tries  to 
help  him,  not  to  punish  him.  A  few  boys  and  girls 
do  not  appreciate  kind  treatment,  but  most  of  them 
do.  They  will  be  fair  with  the  judge  who  is  fair  with 
them  Judge  Ben  Lindsey  of  Denver,  through  long 
experience,  has  proved  that  this  is  true. 

The  care  of  the  insane.  Less  than  a  hundred  years 
ago  insane  people  were  chained  to  the  walls  of  mad- 
houses and  treated  with  great  cruelty.  But  in 
modern  hospitals  for  the  insane  there  are  no  chains. 


Care  of  Delinquents  and  Defectives       253 

There  are  carpels  on  the  floors  and  curtains  at  the 
windows.  The  patients,  except  a  few  that  are 
violent,  go  about  much  as  they  please.  There  is 
regular  work  for  all  who  are  capable  of  it.  Scientific 
medical  Irealmenl  is  given  those  who  need  it.  Base- 
ball teams,  bands,  theatricals,  and  dances  help  to 
cheer  the  lot  of  the  inmates.  Everything  is  done  to 
make  their  surroundings  agreeable.  Many  get  well 
under  such  circumstances.  The  treatment  of  the 
insane  is  not  always  as  kindly  and  successful  as  it 
should  be,  but  immense  progress  is  being  made. 

The  feeble-minded.  1'here  are  many  grades  of 
feeble-mindedness.  For  the  completely  idiotic  there 
is  nothing  to  do  but  to  keep  them  as  humanely  as 
possible.  For  those  of  more  intelligence,  especially 
the  highest  class  of  feeble-minded  called  morons,  a 
great  deal  can  be  done.  By  getting  them  out  of 
the  ordinary^  schools  and  by  patiently  teaching  them, 
they  can  be  made  useful  and  even  self-supporting. 
It  would  be  much  cheaper  for  the  state  to  provide 
supervision  and  work  for  them,  as  on  farm  colonies, 
than  to  care  for  them  as  criminals  and  ])aupers. 
Few  stales  have  so  far  awakened  to  that  fact. 

The  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind.  Schools  and  other 
institutions  for  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind  are  main- 
tained l)y  most  slates.  The  eH'ort  is  to  give  each 
afllicled  child  a  training  that  will  make  him  self- 
supporting.  Similar  work  is  being  done  for  disabled 
soldiers  by  the  national  government.  Such  educa- 
tional work  is  worth  far  more  than  most  so-called 
charity. 


254  Loyal  Citizenship 

QUESTIONS 

What  classes  are  a  burden  to  society?  How  can  you  justify 
punishing  criminals?  What  persons  are  sent  to  state  prisons?  to 
reformatories?  Explain  the  probation  system.  What  are  the 
advantages  of  the  juvenile  court?  Tell  about  the  new  and  the  old 
methods  of  dealing  with  the  insane.  Can  anything  be  done  for  the 
feeble-minded?  Explain  how  they  should  be  treated.  What  does 
the  state  do  for  the  deaf,  dumb,  and  blind? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  institutions  of  your  own  state  and  locality  should  be  studied 
to  complete  the  story  which  the  text  only  outlines.  See  Beard, 
C.  A.,  American  Government  and  Politics  and  American  City  Govern- 
ment; Flexner  and  Baldwin,  Juvenile  Courts  and  Probation: 
Henderson,  C.  R.,  Introduction  to  the  Study  of  Dependent,  Defective, 
and  Delinquent  Classes;  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  Functions  of  Ameri- 
can Government,  Chapters  28  and  30.     The  Survey  will  be  very  useful. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

A  talk  by  the  judge  of  the  juvenile  court  on  the  work  of  that  court 
should  be  arranged  for  by  the  class. 


CHAPTER  TniRTY-TnR?:E 
Conservation  of  Natural  Resources 

The  meaning  of  conservation.  Literally,  conser- 
vation inoaiis  saving  or  guarding  an\  thing.  \\  e 
speak  of  the  conservation  of  healtli,  and  in  phvsics, 
of  energy.  But  the  term  has  come  to  apply  particu- 
larly to  the  saving  for  right  use,  principally  through 
government  action,  of  the  natural  resources  of  this 
country. 

Land.  The  greatest  of  our  natural  resources  is, 
of  course,  land.  Our  government  long  ago  disposed 
of  all  the  best  of  its  lands  that  were  naturally  adapted 
to  farming.  This  it  did  under  the  Homestead  Act 
and  earlier  acts,  through  grants  to  ex-soldiers  and 
to  railroads,  and  by  direct  sales.  The  cultivated 
area  of  our  country  can  now  be  extended  chiefly 
by  the  reclamation  of  deserts  and  swamps  and  the 
overflow  lands  along  our  great  rivers.  To  this  end 
the  United  States  Reclamation  Service  has  built 
great  dams,  like  the  Arrow  Rock  dam  in  Idaho, 
behind  which  are  stored  the  waters  of  the  Boise 
River,  and  brought  water  to  tens  of  thousands  of 
acres.  At  the  same  time,  great  areas  of  swamp  land 
have  been  drained.  The  problem  of  preventing  the 
destructive  floods  which  frequently  occur  in  many 
river  valleys,  especially  the  Mississippi,  have  been 
studied  and  government  aid  supplied.  A  great  deal 
has  been  done,  too,  by  state  and  local  governments 
and  by  private  enterprise  to  reclaim  land  (Figs.  105 
and  106). 

Much  remains  to  be  done,  as  in  checking  the  waste- 

255 


256 


Loyal  Citizenship 


U.  S.  Reclamation  Service 


Fig.  101.   The  dam  at  Arrow  Rock.  The  spillway,  at  the  left,  permits 
excess  water  to  escape  from  the  immense  reservoir. 

fill  use  of  land  by  individuals.  Sometimes  bad  farm- 
ing methods  are  practiced  to  the  ruination  of  the 
land;  and  erosion  of  farm  lands  (their  washing  away) 
is  too  often  allowed  to  go  on  when  it  could  easily 
enough  be  stopped.  This  is  httle  short  of  criminal. 
No  man  should  be  permitted  to  waste  the  source 
of  the  living  of  all  of  us. 

Wasting  the  forests.  Much  of  the  primeval  forest 
of  our  country  had  to  be  cut  away  in  order  to  make 
the  land  usable  for  farming.  The  early  settlers, 
indeed,  thought  of  the  forest  as  an  enemy  to  be 
conquered.  The  United  States  sold  very  cheaply 
or  gave  away  vast  tracts  of  timber  land  to  private 


Conservalion  of  Natural  Resources       257 


^T^'    •*' 


'■m^:  .jssJ&at  ^i> 


rva^ai 


"iSSfe??^. 


r%**^. 


^ 


L'.  .S.  R(ftamalion  Service 

Fig.  10.").    iNOl  niiiiiy  >('ius  aj^o  the  Sail  Hiver  country  in  Arizona  was 
a  desert.    The  Camel  Back  Mountains  are  shown  in  the  distance. 


mufut  #v 


#r;vf 


\% 


ijM5w5i.^fV^^^ 


Fig.  106.   The  sagebrush  land  .shown  in  Figure  10.")  has  become  a  vast 
farm  as  a  result  of  the  Salt  River  irrigation  project. 


258  Loyal  Citizenship 

persons,  who  in  many  places  cut  and  destroyed  the 
forests  on  the  liillsides.  Rains  then  washed  the  soil 
away,  leaving  bare  rocks  in  place  of  trees.  Instead 
of  being  held  by  the  forest  to  seep  into  the  rivers, 
the  waters  from  spring  rains  and  melting  snows 
poured  into  the  valleys  in  destructive  floods.  Moisture 
dried  quickly  out  of  the  unprotected  ground  and  by 
midsummer  the  land  was  parched. 

Not  only  did  the  lumbermen  cut  merchantable 
timber,  but  they  broke  down  the  young  timber,  and 
left  great  quantities  of  waste  from  lumber  upon  the 
ground.  When  dry,  this  waste  became  the  starting 
point  of  terrific  fires  that  destroyed  more  forests 
than  did  the  ax  and  the  saw. 

Forest  conservation.  In  1905,  Congress,  acting 
upon  the  recommendation  of  President  Roosevelt, 
created  a  Rureau  of  Forestry  in  the  Department  of 
Agriculture,  and  Gifford  Pinchot,  a  far-seeing  and 
public-spirited  man,  was  appointed  Chief  Forester. 
The  United  States  has  set  aside  about  two  hundred 
million  acres  of  land  in  forest  reserves.  In  these 
reserves  only  the  full-grown  timber  is  cut,  and  the 
cutting  is  done  under  restrictions  which  prevent 
waste.  Another  ten  million  acres  have  been  set 
aside  by  the  states  in  similar  reserves.  Rut  the  forest 
area  owned  by  individuals  is  at  least  four  times  as 
great  as  that  owned  by  the  public,  and  only  a  few 
private  owners  are  really  careful  in  the  use  of  their 
property. 

Forest  fires.  Forest  fires  in  the  United  States 
produce  a  loss  of  about  fifty  million  dollars  a  year. 


Conservation  of  Natural  Resources        239 


U.  S.  FuTC.ll  Senicc 


Fig.  107.  A  fire  in  the  Olympic  National  Forest,  Washington,  at 
night.  Forest  fire  losses  in  the  United  States  averaged  more  than 
17  million  dolltirs  a  year  from  1*)16  to  1020  inclusive.  There  were 
160,318  lires,  and  .56, 188, .307  acres  were  burned  over. 

They  always  start  as  small  fires.  Somebody  tlirows 
a  match  into  a  pile  of  brush,  or  somebody  leaves  a 
campfire  burning.  The  United  States  Forest  Service 
has  prepared  excellent  rules  for  the  prevention  of 
forest  fires.  These  are  posted  in  public  places  near 
the  forest  reserves. 

On  the  summit  of  a  mountain  commanding  a  view 
of  hundreds  of  miles  of  forest  will  be  a  Jire  lookout 
or  "observatory."     Members  of  the  forest  service 


260 


Loyal  CAiizenship 


v.  S.  Forest  Service 

Fig.  108.    An  observer  watching  for  fires  from  a  lookout  tower  on 
Marties'  Peak,  California. 

keep  watch  there  day  and  iiight.  Telephone  wires 
run  from  the  lookout  to  the  stations  of  the  forest 
rangers.  As  soon  as  a  suspicious  smoke  is  seen,  the 
alarm  is  given  and  the  rangers  hurry  to  the  location 
that  the  lookout  has  indicated.  Volunteers  are 
called  upon  to  help  fight  the  fires,  equipment  being 
supplied  by  the  rangers.  Recently  the  forestry 
service  has  instituted  airplane  patrols  as  a  further 
means  for  the  prompt  discovery  of  fire. 

Conservation  of  wild  life.  Much  has  been  done 
by  pubhc-spirited  individuals  and  by  the  government 
toward  saving  the  native  wild  fife  of  our  country. 
Game  sanctuaries,  the  greatest  of  which  is  Yellow- 


Conservation  of  Natural  Resources        261 

stone  National  Park,  have  been  I  he  means  of  pre- 
serving to  us  native  American  animals  liiat  have 
been  threatened  with  extinction.  Laws  |)rf)tecting 
fish,  bird  life,  and  game  sliould  l)e  strongly  enforced. 

Metals.  The  supply  of  some  metals,  like  gold, 
silver,  and  })latiiium,  is  very  limited,  and  they  are 
so  highly  })rize(l  that  the  greatest  care  is  always 
taken  in  mining  them.  But  the  more  abundant  and 
cheaper  metals,  which  are  much  more  necessary  to 
human  welfare  than  are  the  precious  metals,  are 
often  mined  in  a  wasteful  manner.  The  temptation 
is  to  remove  from  the  earth  only  the  higher-yielding 
ores,  leaving  the  rest  in  place,  where  it  may  never 
become  available.  Our  government  parted  with 
most  of  its  mineral  lands  for  a  mere  trifle,  retaining 
no  control  over  them. 

The  base  metals  should  not  l)e  wasted.  Wlien 
they  cease  to  be  useful  in  one  form,  they  should  be 
saved,  melted  dow  n,  and  used  again. 

Coal.  There  is  just  so  much  coal  to  be  taken  from 
the  ground,  ajid  the  amount  available  can  be  esti- 
mated with  reasonable  accuracy.  According  to  some 
authorities  coal  is  being  used  at  a  rate  that  w  ill 
exhaust  the  total  supply  of  the  United  States  in 
about  150  years.  We  who  are  living  now  will  never 
be  without  coal,  but  future  generations  may  have 
very  little  of  it.  In  the  last  few  years  seventy-five 
million  acres  of  supposed  coal  land  have  been  set 
apart  by  the  government,  including  most  of  the  ver^' 
valuable  coal  lands  of  Alaska.  Tliis  coal  now  belongs 
to  the  public,  and  it  probably  \\\\\  be  mined  under 


262  Loyal  Citizenship 

government  regulation,  so  that  all  the  coal  can  be 
removed  without  waste. 

The  use  of  water  power  wherever  available  will 
help  tremendously  in  the  conservation  of  coal. 

Oil.  The  increased  use  of  crude  petroleum  as  a 
fuel  and  of  gasoline  for  driving  automobiles  is  rapidly 
depleting  our  total  stock  of  petroleum.  At  our 
present  rate  of  consumption,  the  natural  supply  of 
the  United  States  may  be  used  up  within  the  life- 
time of  some  of  us.  Oil  should  never  be  wasted — 
no  matter  what  the  price.  Only  the  most  economical 
methods  of  getting  it  from  the  ground  should  be 
used.  Already  the  naval  powers  are  in  competition 
for  the  control  of  oil  fields  everywhere.  Sea  power 
depends  upon  petroleum,  for  the  most  effective 
v/arships  must  have  it  as  fuel. 

Natural  gas.  Natural  gas  has  been  more  wantonly 
wasted  than  any  other  of  our  natural  resources.  Up 
to  a  few  years  ago  the  waste  was  fully  equal  to  the 
use.  Natural  gas  is  usually  found  in  connection 
with  oil  wells,  and  oil  operators  have  been  grossly 
careless  about  what  happened  to  the  gas  they  in- 
cidentally opened  up. 

QUESTIONS 

What  is  meant  by  conservation?  What  has  been  the  policy  of  the 
United  States  with  regard  to  pubhc  lands?  What  is  meant  by  se- 
clamation?  What  has  been  the  efTect  of  recklessly  cutting  off  our 
forests?  Who  was  Chief  Forester  under  President  Roosevelt? 
What  has  the  United  States  done  toward  forest  conservation?  What 
is  being  done  to  prevent  forest  fires?  to  preserve  our  native  wild 
life?  Is  there  danger  of  exhausting  our  suppUes  of  coal,  oil,  and 
metals?  What  has  the  United  States  done  toward  their  conservation? 
What  are  some  of  the  things  that  we,-  as  individuals,  can  do  to  help 
in  conservation? 


Conservation  of  Natural  Resources        263 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

l']jirh  of  f)ur  [)riiici|);il  ii;iliiriil  n'scjiirccs  will  furnish  jrood  iii;it(TiMl 
for  a  coiiscrN  alion  rt-porl.  McjMJrts  may  also  lie  made  on  the  {)ul)li(- 
land  polity  of  the  United  Stales,  the  ]>rin(-ipal  provisions  of  the 
Homestead  Law,  the  Land  Ollice,  and  the  Heclaniation  Service. 
See  Beahd,  C.  A.,  American  Governmenl  and  Politics;  Young, 
J.  T.,  The  New  American  Governmenl;  Cronan,  R.,  Our  Wasteful 
Nation;  Pinchot,  Cikkohd,  The  Fight  for  Conservation;  Fairbanks, 
IL  W.,  Conservation  Header;  Reed,  T.  H.,  Form  and  I'^unclions  of 
American  (iovernriient,  Cha}>ter  33.  The  bulletin  of  the  General 
Land  Ollice  on  the  Homestead  Law  and  bulletins  of  the  United 
States  Reclamation  Service  can  be  had,  ujion  request,  of  the  Depart- 
ment of  the  Interior  at  Washington. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Let  the  class  decide  upon  some  conservation  project  that  the 
members  can  carry  out,  such  as  the  saving  of  metal  or  the  cultivation 
of  vacant  lots  or  unused  spaces  in  back  yards,  the  proceeds  to  be 
used  in  buying  or  helping  to  buy  some  object  to  beautify  the  school- 
room. The  class  might,  as  a  project  to  conserve  civic  beauty, 
undertake  the  removal  of  some  unsightly  object  in  the  vicinity  of  the 
school;  but  permission  should  first  be  secured. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-FOUR 
Deaelopmknt  of  Communications 

The  need  for  easy  transportation  and  communi- 
cation. To  get  the  greatest  benefit  out  of  our  widely 
spread  natural  resources — to  conserve  them  through 
right  use — we  need  the  best  possible  means  of  trans- 
portation. We  need,  too,  the  highest  development 
in  mail,  telegraph,  telephone,  cable,  and  wireless 
service,  in  order  to  promote  the  free  interchange  of 
ideas.  The  better  our  means  of  communication,  the 
easier  it  is  to  make  and  keep  the  American  people  a 
social  and  political  unit.  The  Romans  understood 
this  principle  and  acted  upon  it  when  they  followed 
up  each  new  extension  of  their  territory  by  building 
a  good  road. 

Highways.   The  veins  and  arteries  of  the  economic 


American  Musciiin  of  Nat.  Hist, 

Fig.  109.    Progress  in  ocean  transport.    The  "Mayflower"  of  1621 
compared  with  the  "Leviathan"  of  1921. 

264 


Development  of  Coniniunirations  265 


V.  S.  Bureau  of  Puhlu-  Roads 

Fig.  110.   Buildinp;  a  conrrote  road  l)Ol\veen  Heading  and 
Allcnlown,  Pennsylvania. 


life  of  our  country  are  its  highways:  roads,  railroads, 
rivers,  lakes,  and  canals,  and  now  even  ils  air  huies. 
It  is  comparatively  cheap  to  move  goods  by  rail,  still 
cheaper  to  move  them  by  water,  and  comparatively 
expensive  to  haul  them  on  trucks  or  wagons.  It  may 
cost  less  to  bring  Hood  River  apples  from  a  railroad 
station  in  Oregon  to  a  railroad  station  in  the  Middle 
West  than  it  does  to  h.aul  them  to  one  freight  ])lat- 
form  and  away  from  the  other.  The  cost  of  trucking 
depends  very  nmch  on  the  character  of  the  roads. 
Dirt  roads  are  frequently  either  so  muddy  or  so 
dusty  as  to  make  transportation  difiicult,  and 
macadamized  roads  are  soon  torn  to  ])ieces  by  swift- 
moving  automobiles.  But  over  smooth  concrete 
roads  great  ten-ton  motor  trucks  roll  with  ease. 


266 


Loyal  Citizenship 


U.  S.  Bureau  of  Public  Ruaih 

Fig.  111.  A  section  of  the  Lincoln  Highway  between  Kingston 
and  New  Brunswick,  New  Jersey.  Such  a  well-built  concrete  road 
is  easily  maintained,  and  it  greatly  reduces  the  cost  of  motor  trans- 
portation. 

One  of  the  things  that  the  people  of  our  country  most 
need  to  do  is  to  establish  a  fine  system  of  paved  higJiways. 
But  it  is  beyond  the  means  of  any  except  the  more 
thickly  settled  localities  to  pay  for  paved  highways, 
and  a  large  part  of  the  expense  must  be  borne  by  the 
state  and  national  governments.  State  aid  for  roads 
was  begun  by  New  Jersey  (1891),  quickly  followed 
by  Massachusetts  (1892),  Cahfornia  (1895),  and 
New  York  (1898).  Now  every  state  is  engaged  in 
good-roads  work.  On  conditions  laid  down  in  the 
Federal  Aid  Road  Act,  the  United  States  will  bear 
as  much  as  fifty  per  cent  of  the  cost  of  actual  con- 
struction of  roads  within  a  state. 

The  fundamental  principle   of  road  building   is 


Development  of  Commiinicalions         267 


..  Il_'.  lilt'  A[i|)i;in  \\,i\  u;iv  liid  mil  vir:iiir}it  aiul  le\('l  in  the 
fourtli  century,  B.  C  J*;uts  of  it.  liki-  the  scitiun  sliDwn  liere,  have 
been  in  use  ever  since. 


summed  up  in  the  old  saying,  "The  best  is  the 
cheapest."  The  most  famous  road  in  history,  the 
Appian  Way,  was  paved  by  the  Romans,  and  many 
portions  of  it  are  still  in  })late.  The  Romans  built 
their  roads  to  endure.  It  is  the  high  cost  of  main- 
tenance and  repair  on  inferior  roads  that  takes  loo 
ninch  of  the  taxpayers'  money. 

Natural  waterways.  Water  transportation  is 
nmcli  cheaper  than  any  form  of  land  transportation. 
For  all  low-priced,  bulky,  non-perishable  articles  it 
is  to  be  preferred  if  available.  The  prosperity  of  our 
country  has  been  largely  due  to  thewonderful  natural 
waterways  that  are  available  to  it.  The  waters  of  the 
Atlantic  Ocean,  the  Gulf  of  Mexico,  the  Pacific  Ocean, 
and  the  Great  Lakes  are  tlie  most  imjiorlant  of  these. 


268  Loyal  Citizenship 

liirrr  Ininsporldh'on  on  \hc  ^real  Mississippi 
sysleni  has  declined  in  ini}K)rlaiK'e.  bul  it  has  a 
great  future.  The  works  that  will  protect  the 
adjoining  lands  from  flood  will  deepen  and  straighten 
the  chainiels  of  the  streams. 

The  United  States  spends  vast  sums  every  year 
on  the  improvement  of  harbors  and  deepening  and 
more  plainly  marking  channels.  Through  the  Coast 
and  Geodetic  Survey  it  surveys  and  charts  the  coasts 
for  the  benefit  of  mariners.  The  Lighthouse  Service 
maintains  lighthouses,  lightships,  and  buoys  to  make 
navigation  safer.  The  Bureau  of  Navigation  and 
the  Steamboat  Inspection  Service  enforce  laws  for 
the  safety  of  vessels  (including  the  examination  and 
licensing  of  pilots  and  officers  of  steamships).  The 
Life  Saving  Station  Service  rescues  the  passengers 
and  crews  of  vessels  in  distress. 

Canals.  Before  the  day  of  raikoads,  canals  were 
built  as  a  means  for  the  cheap  transport  of  freight 
and  even  passengers.  The  most  famous  of  our  early 
canals  was  the  Erie,  which  ran  from  Buffalo  to 
Albany  and  connected  the  Great  Lakes  with  the 
Hudson  Biver.  A  glance  at  the  map  will  show  what 
a  large  part  of  the  United  States  it  served.  Canals 
within  our  country  have  lost  much  of  their  early 
importance.  Nevertheless,  the  state  of  New  York 
found  it  worth  while  to  spend  nearly  $150,000,000  in 
building  a  barge  canal  over  much  the  same  route  as 
the  Erie,  the  work  being  completed  in  1918  (Fig. 
113).  A  similar  canal  from  Albany  to  the  lower 
end  of  Lake   Champlain  was  completed  in   1916. 


Development  of  Communications         269 


Fig.  11;'>.  A  scdion  (.1  lli.  \,  „  ^  wi  k  Darge  Canal.  A  giant,  car 
float,  huill  in  a  shipyard  on  the  (iroat  Lakes,  is  being  towed  through 
the  canal  for  use  in  New  \ Ork  harbor. 


These    canals    will    accommodate    vessels    drawing 
twelve  feet  of  water. 

There  are  several  important  ship  canals  connecting 
large  bodies  of  water,  such  as  the  Sault  Ste.  Marie 
Canal,  which  unites  Lakes  Superior  and  Huron, 
and  the  Cape  Cod  Canal.  The  Panama  Canal  brings 
the  east  and  west  coasts  of  the  United  States  close 
together  for  commerce  and  defense.  Up  to  the 
present  time  it  has  cost  the  United  States  not  far 
from  $500,000,000.  It  was  completed  under  the 
direction  of  General  Goethals  of  the  United  States 
Army. 


270  Loyal  Citizenship 

Railroads.  The  railroads  of  this  country  were  built 
by  private  capital,  sometimes  with  govermnent 
assistance.  For  a  long  time  they  did  as  they  pleased 
with  regard  to  their  rates  and  the  character  of  the 
service  they  gave.  But  they  discovered  that  com- 
petition in  rates  and  service  was  cutting  off  their 
profits,  and  they  came  to  make  agreements  about 
rates.  This  left  the  shipper  and  the  traveler  at  their 
mercy  and  led,  in  turn,  to  government  regulation. 
Now  state  railroad  or  public  utility  commissions  regu- 
late railroad  business  within  each  state,  and  the 
Interstate  Commerce  Commission  regulates  interstate 
railroads. 

War  measures.  WTien  we  entered  the  Great 
War,  it  immediately  became  apparent  that  the 
railroads  of  our  country  must  be  operated  as  a 
single  system  if  we  were  to  get  the  most  out  of  them 
in  moving  troops  and  war  materials.  The  govern- 
ment wanted  its  freight  to  go  by  the  most  direct 
routes  irrespective  of  railroad  ownership.  After  an 
attempt  on  tlie  part  of  the  railroads  to  get  together, 
which  failed  partly  because  of  legal  restrictions  on 
combinations  of  lines,  tJie  President  was  authorized 
by  Congress  to  take  over  all  the  railroads  of  the  country. 
This  was  done,  and  during  the  war  period  they  were 
operated  by  a  director-general,  appointed  by  the 
President.  The  American  telegraph  lines  and  cables 
were  also  temporarily  taken  over  by  the  government 
as  a  war  measure.  They  were  operated  under  the 
Post  Office  Department. 

Transportation  Act  of  1920.     By  this  act,  which 


Developmenl  of  Comiunnicalioni 


Fig.  111.  The  terminal  yards  of  the  West  Shore  Ihiilroad  at  W  ec- 
liiiwkcMi,  INcw  .IcrscY.  jtist  across  the  Hudson  from  New  York.  The 
river  brings  hirge  sliips  immediatelv  n[)  to  the  yards. 

was  signed  by  the  President  on  February  28,  1920, 
the  railroads  were  returned  to  their  o^vners  two  days 
later.  Tiie  United  Stales  undertook  to  adjust  losses 
occurring  as  a  result  of  government  management 
and  to  make  up  any  failure  in  revenue  during  the 
six  months  following  March  1,  1920.  The  act 
provides  for  the  settlement  by  a  Labor  Board  of 
disputes  between  employers  and  employees  that 
cannot  otherwise  be  settled  williout  a  strike.  This 
board  consists  of  nine  members,  three  representing 
the  organized  workers,  three  the  railroad  manage- 
ment, and  three  the  general  public  (the  last  ap{)()inled 
by  the  President  of  the  United  States).  The  inter- 
state Connnerce  Commission  is  given  power  to  make 
plans  for  the  consolidation  of  the  railway  lines  of  the 


272  Loyal  Citizenship 

country  into  a  limited  number  of  systems,  and  to 
authorize  consolidation  if  any  railroads  desire  it, 
according  to  these  plans.  No  one  thinks  that  the 
question  of  the  management  of  our  railroads  has 
been  definitely  settled  by  the  Act  of  1920,  and 
various  plans  for  the  management  of  the  railroads 
have  been  urged  before  Congress. 

Air  transportation.  The  possibilities  of  transpor- 
tation by  airplane  and  dirigible  balloon  are  very 
great.  Passenger  air  service  is  now  conducted 
between  different  cities  by  private  companies,  and 
the  United  States  government  operates  air-mail 
routes,  one  of  them  connecting  New  York  and  San 
Francisco.  As  air  transportation  develops,  new 
problems  of  traffic  regulation  will  arise. 

Postal  service.  Our  need  for  communication  facil- 
ities is  not  fully  met  by  the  construction  of  railroads, 
highways,  or  canals  or  even  by  the  establishment  of 
stage,  railway,  steamship,  and  air  lines.  There  must 
be  methods  for  swiftly  and  safely  forwarding  letters 
or  packages  from  one  part  of  the  country  to  another — 
often  over  several  such  lines — and  for  delivering 
them  to  the  proper  party  at  the  end  of  the  journey. 
This  service  is  rendered  by  the  Post  Office  Depart- 
ment, one  of  the  most  important  branches  of  the 
Federal  government.  For  two  cents  the  Department 
will  carry  a  letter  from  New  York  to  Seattle  and 
deliver  it  at  the  door  of  the  person  to  whom  it  is 
addressed.  For  a  very  moderate  charge  packages 
(within  certain  limits  of  size  and  shape)  will  be 
carried  anywhere  in  the  country.    The  free  delivery 


Developincnl  of  ( 'omtiiiim'cdliofis  '2~'.) 

i)[  mail  in  rural  dishicls,  (>ri<Mi  iiiaii\  iiiiirs  I'lotii  a 
post  ofTi('«\  is  one  of  lln'  iiiosi  iisd'ul  parts  of  Ihe 
service.  One  nnisl  now  Use  in  a  very  remote  spot 
indeed,  not  to  have  mail  l)rou<,'lil  daily  to  his  door. 
Through  treaties  with  other  countries  our  Post 
Office  forwards  mail  to  all  ])arls  of  l!ie  world  and 
receives  it  in  return. 

Express  service.  Express  companies  perform  a 
service  very  similar  to  that  of  the  Post  Oflice  in 
forwarding  packages,  though  without  limit  as  to 
size.  But  they  do  not  deliver  outside  the  limits  of 
cities  in  which  their  offices  are  located.  During  the 
war  the  great  express  companies  were  consolidated 
in  the  American  Railway  Express,  which  was  for  a 
time  operated  by  the  government.  Both  the  Post 
Office  and  the  express  companies  will  forward  sums 
by  money  order  or  by  registered  or  insur(ul  })ackage. 

Telephone  and  telegraph  service.  The  telephone 
and  telegraph  have  made  the  far  corners  of  the  world 
our  near  neighbors.  So  far,  except  for  a  l)rief  period 
during  the  war,  they  have  been  under  private  man- 
agement. In  many  other  countries  the  telegraph 
and  sometimes  the  telephone  service  is  managed  by 
the  government,  usualh  in  connection  with  the 
postal  service.  Our  telephone  system  especially  is 
vastly  superior  in  extent  and  in  quality  of  service 
to  any  other  in  the  world.  In  some  sections  of  the 
country  there  are  competing  telephone  companies, 
but  this  situation  is  not  ver>'  satisfactoi^.  The 
telephone  and  telegraph  services  are  bound  in  the 
long  run   to  be  })raclical  monoj)olies,  and   the  same 


274  Loyal  Citizenship 

principles    apply    to    their   regulation    as   to    other 
public  utilities  (see  Chapter  23). 

QUESTIONS 

Explain  the  importance  of  transportation.  Why  are  well-paved 
highways  so  necessary?  When  and  where  did  the  system  of  state- 
aided  highways  begin?  W  hy  do  portions  of  the  Appian  Way  still 
exist?  Should  roads  be  owned  by  the  public?  Give  your  reasons. 
What  does  the  United  States  do  to  make  water  transportation  safe 
and  convenient?  What  hope  is  there  for  a  revival  of  river  traffic? 
Why  was  the  Erie  Canal  important?  To  what  extent  are  canals 
still  important  in  New  York  State?  Name  some  of  the  important 
ship  canals.  Should  canals  be  publicly  or  privately  owned?  Why? 
What  bodies  have  been  established  to  regulate  such  matters  as 
raikoad  rates?  For  what  reason?  Why  were  the  railroads  taken  over 
by  the  government  during  the  Great  War?  W  hat  are  the  principal 
features  of  the  Transportation  Act  of  1920?  \\  hat  are  some  of  the 
services  rendered  by  the  Post  Office  Department?  by  express  com- 
panies? What  principles  should  govern  regulation  of  telephone 
and  telegraph  companies? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  Esch-Cummins  plan  for  the  management  of  railroads  (em- 
bodied in  part  in  the  Transportation  Act) ;  the  highway  system  of 
your  own  state;  the  history  of  the  Erie  Canal,  or  of  another  canal 
that  may  be  more  closely  related  to  your  locahty;  the  raikoad 
commission  of  your  own  state;  the  Interstate  Conmierce  Commis- 
sion; the  various  bureaus  and  services  of  the  national  government 
that  are  mentioned  in  the  text.  The  "Plumb  plan"  for  the  manage- 
ment of  railroads  might  be  made  the  subject  of  a  report. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Appoint  a  committee  to  study  and  report  on  the  highways  of  your 
locality,  locating  them  on  a  map  and  describing  their  condition. 

A  debate:  Resolved,  That  the  railroads  of  the  United  States 
should  be  owned  and  operated  by  the  national  government. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-FI\T. 

Footing  the  Bills 

Government  costs  money.  W  ar  materials,  public 
buildiiifijs,  and  all  the  stTvicos  ol"  ^^ovcrnmoiil  cost 
money — much  money.  Our  public  servants,  from 
President  to  street  sweeper,  have  to  be  paid  for  their 
work.  While  the  in(Hvi{hial  salaries  are  generally  not 
large,  all  of  them  together  make  a  vast  sum.  We 
cannot  have  armies,  navies,  post  oflices,  police  and 
fire  departments,  and  schools  without  paying  for 
them.  We  miisf  undcrsland  fhal  ivhen  (he  cily,  county, 
slate,  or  nation  spends  money,  it  spends  the  citizens'' 
money.  Since  income  tcLxes  have  been  imposed  by  the 
Federal  and  several  of  the  state  goverimients,  many 
people  have  come  to  realize  this  as  they  never  did 
before. 

How  government  gets  money.  Governments  get 
money  })rincipally  in  tliree  ways:  (1)  By  o])liging 
people  to  make  payments  toward  the  support  of 
goverimient.  The  forms  of  these  payments  are 
many,  but  they  are  all  called  taxes;  (2)  by  charging 
a  small  sum  for  such  services  as  filing  petitions  at 
law  and  recording  deeds,  these  charges  being  called 
fees  (postage  may  be  regarded  as  a  fee);  (3)  by 
selling  gas,  water,  electric  current,  or  street-car  rides, 
receipts  from  such  sources  being  called  prices. 
Through  fees  the  individual  pays  at  least  part  of 
the  extra  expense  that  goverimient  bears  on  his 
account.  When  he  buys  electric  current  or  water 
from  a  city,  he  pays  for  it  exactly  as  if  he  were  dealing 
with  a  private  corporation.    Taxation  is  the  method 


276 


Loyal  Citizenship 


U.  S.  Bureau  of  the  Census 

Fig.  115.  The  total  payments  for  all  government  costs  of  146  cities 
in  the  United  States  compared  with  those  of  the  Federal  government, 
during  specilied  years. 


by  which  we  cire  all  obliged  to  help  pay  for  the  gen- 
eral cost  of  government. 

Who  spends  the  most  money.  Just  now  it  is  the 
national  government  that  spends  most  of  the  public 
money,  but  this  is  because  we  have  so  recently  been 
at  war.  In  ordinary  times  the  state  and  local  gov- 
ernments taken  together  spend  much  more  money 
than  does  the  national  government.  It  is  just  as 
important  to  watch  their  expenditures  as  it  is  to 
watch  those  of  the  govermnent  at  Washington. 

Taxes  on  imports.  The  United  States  derives 
its  revenue  from  duties  on  imports,  and  from  inter- 
nal revenue,  inheritance,  income,  and  other  special 
taxes.  Almost  every  article  imported  into  the  United 
States  from  foreign  countries  is  taxed,  usually  highly 
taxed.    Of  course,   the  consumer  really  pays  this 


/'OoluHf  (he  Hills  277 

iinporl    lax.    lot'    I  lie    itiijiortcr    adds    ciioni:!!    lo    his 
selling  price  to  n-imhiitsc  liiinscir. 

The  list  of  iniporl  taxes  is  called  a  kiriJJ.  A  tariff 
may  be  for  revenue  only,  or  it  may  he  protect  ire.  The 
United  States  generally  has  a  high  protective  tariff. 
The  purpose  of  such  a  tariff  is  largely  to  exclude  many 
foreign  ])roducts.  If  it  costs  us  more  to  produce  cut- 
lei-y  or  raisins  or  paper  pulp  than  it  costs  foreigners 
to  produce  them,  we  place  a  high  enough  duty  on 
these  articles  to  make  the  foreign  products  more 
expensive  than  the  American.  In  this  way  our  pro- 
ducers are  "protected."  There  are  many  people  who 
on  princi{)le  oppose  the  protective  tariff.  'Jliey  say 
it  is  not  fair  to  make  everybody  in  this  country  pay 
more  for  many  articles  merely  to  benefit  a  small  part 
of  the  people.  Others  argue  that  the  prosperity  of 
our  farmers,  miners,  and  manufacturers  makes  every- 
body else  more  prosperous,  and  that  a  high  tariff 
makes  possible  the  payment  of  high  wages.  It  is 
argued,  too,  that  a  high  tariff  is  necessary  to  preserve 
industries  that  may  become  essential  to  victory  in 
war.  The  tarilf  cpiestion  has  always  been  an  issue 
between  the  political  parties  of  the  country,  and  it  is 
apparently  as  far  from  settlement  as  it  was  a  century 
ago. 

Internal  revenue.  Every  package  of  tobacco  or 
playing  cards  has  a  stamp  on  it  which  must  be  broken 
to  open  the  ])a(kage.  Tliat  stamp  was  bought  by 
the  manufacturer  frc)m  the  Lnited  Stales  and  repre- 
sents a  tax.  Stamps  are  now  required  on  many  legal 
papers,  and  taxes  are  collected  from  every  one  who 


278  Loyal  Citizenship 

attends  a  theater  or  who  buys  an  autoniol)ile  or  an 
expensive  dress.  These  are  merely  examples  of  some 
of  our  sources  of  internal  revenue. 

Inheritance,  income,  and  profits  taxes.  When 
any  one  dies  leaving  more  than  a  few  thousand  dol- 
lars, any  inheritance  from  his  estate  is  subject  to  a 
Federal  tax  and  often  to  a  state  tax.  The  rate  of  the 
tax  is  higher  as  estates  are  larger.  The  rate  is  also 
higher  for  distantly  related  heirs  or  strangers  than 
it  is  for  near  relatives.  Thus,  a  wife  or  a  child  pays  a 
smaller  tax  than  does  a  nephew. 

Every  unmEirried  person  with  an  income  of  more 
than  $1000  a  year,  and  every  married  person  with 
an  income  of  more  than  $2500  a  year,  is  required  to 
pay  a  tax  on  any  income  above  $iOOO  or  $2500,  as  the 
case  may  be.  (But  an  exemption  of  $400  is  allowed 
for  certain  dependent  members  of  a  family,  other 
than  wife.)  This  tax  begins  with  4  per  cent  for  small 
incomes  and  increases  to  65  per  cent  for  an  income  of 
a  miUion  dollars  or  more.  Such  a  tax  is  called  a  pro- 
gressive income  tax.  Very  heavy  taxes  were  also  im- 
posed on  the  extra  liigh  profits  that  many  corpora- 
tions were  able  to  make  on  account  of  war  conditions. 
The  national  income  tax  was  provided  for  by  the 
Sixteenth  Amendment  to  the  Constitution. 

State  and  local  taxation.  A  few  states  derive 
their  income  from  taxes  on  the  gross  receipts  of  public 
utility  corporations,  banks,  and  insurance  compan- 
ies. Many  of  them  get  some  revenue  from  poll  taxes 
(payment  of  a  few  dollcirs  by  each  voter  or  adult 
inhabitant)  and  income  and  inheritance  taxes.    The 


Fooling  the  Bills  279 

great  bulk  of  the  revenue  of  city,  stale,  and  local 
governments  comes  from  I  he  (jcncnil  j)r()f>rrly  tax. 
All  property,  real  and  personal,  is  assessed  hy  I  he 
city,  town,  or  county  assessor  to  del  ermine  its  value. 
Then  the  state,  county,  town,  or  city,  having  settled 
how  much  money  it  must  raise,  levies  a  tax  that  will 
produce  this  sum.  The  rate  of  the  tax  is  fixed  at  so 
many  "  mills  on  the  dollar  " — so  many  tenths  of  a  cent 
for  each  dollar  of  valuation.  In  practice,  real  prop- 
erty— lands  and  houses — is  usually  assessed  at  about 
60  per  cent  of  its  value,  and  most  personal  property 
escapes  local  assessment  altogether.  In  order  to  be 
fair,  the  assessment  must  be  very  carefully  made 
by  well-trained  assessors.  Unfortunately,  it  is  too 
rarely  made  in  that  w  ay. 

How  we  all  help  to  pay  local  taxes.  We  hear  a 
good  deal  in  local  politics  about  the  rights  of  the  tax- 
payer. We  have  taxpayers'  associations  and  tax- 
payers' candidates.  In  some  states  only  taxpayers 
vote  on  proposals  to  borrow  money,  and  some  nmnici- 
pal  reformers  have  suggested  that  only  taxpayers 
should  have  the  right  to  vote  for  mayor  and  council- 
men.  When  we  speak  of  "taxpayers"  we  usually 
mean  property  owners,  and  we  assume  that  these 
really  pay  all  the  taxes.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  they  do 
not.  If  a  family  lives  in  a  rented  house,  part  of  the 
rent  money  goes  to  pay  the  landlord's  taxes.  The 
grocer's  rent  pays  his  landlord's  taxes,  and  when  the 
family  buys  groceries  it  pays  a  share  of  the  grocer's 
rent.  The  actual  burden  of  taxation  is  borne  by  the 
whole  community.     But  most  of  us  pay  the  larger 


280  Loyal  Citizenship 

pnrl  of  our  share  in  a  very  indiiTct  way,  and  unfor- 
tunately we  do  not  realize  to  what  extent  we  are  bearing 
taxation.  We  are  too  much  inclined,  therefore,  to  be 
careless  with  regard  to  increased  public  expenditures. 

Budgets.  .4  budget  is  a  plan  for  spending  in- 
come. It  is  a  very  good  thing  for  young  people 
who  earn  money  regularly  or  who  have  allowances,  to 
make  budgets  for  themselves :  so  much  for  saving,  so 
much  for  books  or  clothes,  and  so  much  for  amuse- 
ments. A  budget  is  a  very  great  aid  to  family  and 
individual  thrift. 

If  the  budget  is  a  good  thing  for  the  individual,  it  is 
almost  indispensable  for  the  city,  county,  state,  and 
nation.  In  no  other  way  can  these  avoid  spending 
more  than  they  have  or  being  left  with  idle  money  in 
the  treasury.  A  good  budget  is  the  first  step  toward 
governmental  economy.  Many  cities  and  a  few 
states  have  excellent  budget  systems.  But,  strangely, 
the  United  States  government  with  its  enormous 
expenditures  did  not  adopt  a  budget  system  until 
1921. 

Increase  in  government  expenditures.  Entirely 
apart  from  the  war  and  its  effects,  governmental  ex- 
penditures have  been  steadily  increasing.  We  de- 
mand, for  example,  more  and  better  roads,  public 
institutions,  and  parks  than  we  did  ten  years  ago. 
Many  people  regard  increased  expenditures  with 
alarm.  There  would  be  no  reason  for  this  if  the 
additional  money  were  spent  wisely.  Governments 
do  not  exist  to  save  money,  but  to  expend  it  in 
such  a  way  as  to  secure  the  greatest  possible  benefit  to 


Fooling  the  Bills 


281 


all  oi'  lilt'  people.    11'  (he  object  is  good  and  the  people 
get  full  value  for  each  dollar  spent,  thai  is  enough. 


Kduiii  Marcus  in  Sew  York  Times 

Fig.  116.  "Stop  the  Le;iks!"  There  are  always  politic  ians  and  others 
whose  sehemes  lead  to  }^o\  eminent  extravagance.  Onr  citizens  must 
be  on  the  alert  to  prevent  any  waste  of  go\eriniient  funds. 

The  kind  of  increase  in  expenditure  that  we  need  to 
fear  arises  from  waste  and  })oor  jiidgineuL  We  sJiouId 
require  of  our  <iorernnu'uls  as  careful  arui  ejjicierit  ad- 
ministration as  is  required  in  private  business  (Fig. 
116). 

Public  debts.  Govenmients  cannot  always  meet 
their  expeiulil tires  oul  of  current  income,  yet  it  is 
not  thought  wise   to  have  them  hoard  money  to 


282 


Loyal  Citizenship 


meet  extraordinary  expenses.  Therefore,  in  emer- 
gencies they  must  borrow  money.  The  United  States 
had  to  float  five  huge  loans,  that  it  might  do  its  part 
in  the  Great  War.  Highways,  bridges,  pubhc  build- 
ings, waterworks,  and  sewers  are  paid  for  through 
loans.  Public  loans  that  are  to  run  for  a  period  of 
years  are  effected  through  the  sale  of  bonds — printed 
and  signed  instruments  bearing  promises  to  pay  prin- 
cipal and  installments  of  interest  at  fixed  dates. 
In  the  case  of  a  state  or  a  local  government  a  propo- 
sition for  borrowing  money  must  usually  be  sub- 
mitted to  and  approved  by  the  people  at  an  election. 
The  following  table  from  Financial  Statistics  of 
Cities,  1919,  pubhshed  by  the  Bureau  of  the  Census, 
shows  the  indebtedness  of  146  cities  in  the  United 
States  and  the  indebtedness  of  the  Federal  govern- 
ment during  specified  years.  The  very  great  in- 
crease in  the  national  debt  shown  for  1918  and  1919 
was  due  to  the  war. 


Year 

116  Cities 

United  States 

Total 

Per 

capita 

Total 

Per 

capita 

1919 

1918 

1917 

1915 

1913 

1911 

1909 

1907 

1905 

1903 

$2,.541,172,.360 
2,508,095,418 
2,445,851,564 
2,245,906,412 
1,950,006.813 
1,808,828,.392 
1,.537,099,.399 
1,294,878,759 
1,119,.345,755 
933,004,632 

$81.18 
80.96 
80.75 
77.86 
69.28 
67.52 
61.21 
56.04 
50.94 
44.71 

$24,479,302,376 

10,924,281,355 

1,908,635,224 

1,090,148,006 

1,028,564,055 

1,015,784,338 

1,023,861,531 

878,596,755 

989,866,772 

925,011,637 

$234.77 
104.59 
18.56 
10.95 
10.59 
10.83 
11.31 
10.06 
11.77 
11.44 

Fooling  the  Bills  283 

QUESTIONS 

Why  docs  govornnient  cost  nionoy?  N\  fiat  does  it  sporul  i(s  money 
for?  What  is  meant  by  "taxes"?  "fees"?  "prices"?  How  does  the 
Federal  government  compare  with  state  and  local  governments  in 
the  amount  of  its  expenditures?  \N  hy  should  we  watch  local  expen- 
ditures? From  what  sources  does  the  United  States  get  its  revenue? 
Explain  taxes  on  imports.  \\  liat  is  meant  by  the  term  " protect i\(' 
tariH"?  Give  some  of  the  arguments  for  and  against  it.  Exjjlain 
what  is  meant  by  "internal  revenue."  Tell  wliat  you  can  of  the 
Federal  income  tax.  What  is  meant  by  "inheritance  tax"?  What 
is  meant  by  "general-property  tax"?  How  are  local  taxes  raised? 
Explain  how  we  all  help  to  pay  taxes.  Tell  some  of  the  advantages 
of  a  budget.  Do  you  think  that  the  United  States  should  have  a 
budget?  Why?  Are  goverrniient  expenditures  increasing?  Should 
we  regard  this  with  alarm?    Why? 

TOPICS  FOR  INVESTIGATION 

The  expenditure  of  money  by  your  own  state  and  local  conmiunity. 
What,  for  example,  are  the  ten  largest  items  of  expense  in  your  city? 
The  local  budget  and  the  local  tax  system.  The  published  reports 
of  the  state  controller  or  auditor  and  the  reports  of  your  local 
government  will  give  the  necessary  information.  If  your  local 
government  does  not  publish  reports,  the  information  can  be  obtained 
by  visiting  the  oHices.  See  Bkahd,  (!.  A.,  American  (kweriinienl  and 
Politics  and  American  City  Government;  IMunho,  W.  B.,  Government 
of  tlie  United  Stales  and  Government  of  American  Cities;  Pli:hn, 
C.  C,  Introduction  to  Pnhlic  Finance  and  Government  Finance  in  tlie 
United  States;  Encyclopedia  of  American  Government  (see  titles 
"Tax,"  "TfirifT,"  etc.);  Bureau  of  the  Census,  Financial  Stalislics 
of  Cities  (published  yearly). 

On  the  budget  see  W  ilson,  W  oodrow,  Congressional  Government, 
and  Bryce,  James,  The  American  Commoruvealtli.  The  whole;  subject 
of  this  chapter  is  covered  in  Heko,  T.  11.,  Form  and  Functions  of 
American  Government,  Chapters  10  and  II. 

CIVIC  ACTIVITIES 

Let  the  class  debate  the  i)roposition:  Pesohed,  That  tlie  United 
States  should  maintain  a  higli  protective  larill'. 


CHAPTER  THIRTY-SIX 
Our  Place  in  the  World 

The  United  States  and  Europe.  At  the  close  of 
the  American  Revolution  there  was  but  a  thin  fringe 
of  population  along  the  Atlantic  seaboard.  There  was 
then  grave  danger  that  the  nations  of  Europe  would 
involve  the  new  American  republic  in  one  of  their 
frequent  quarrels,  and  perhaps  destroy  its  independ- 
ence. It  was  for  this  reason  that  Washington 
solemnly  urged  the  American  people  to  avoid  en- 
tangling alliances  with  European  countries.  He  felt 
that  if  we  kept  strictly  to  ourselves  and  had  as  little 
as  possible  to  do  with  European  affairs  we  might  the 
better  work  out  our  own  salvation  (Fig.  117). 

But  in  spite  of  our  best  efforts  we  were  drawn  into 
the  struggle  between  Great  Britain  and  France.  Both 
nations  violated  the  rights  of  our  people  on  the  sea, 
and  finally,  in  1812,  we  went  to  war  with  Great 
Britain.  We  cUd  not  do  this  because  we  were  inter- 
ested in  Euro'pean  affairs,  but  simply  to  protect  our 
own  rights.  After  the  War  of  1812  we  continued  to 
have  a  purely  American  policy.  It  was  not  until  the 
conflict  of  1914-1918  that  we  had  a  share  of  any 
magnitude  in  the  settlement  of  European  questions. 
The  Great  War  was  not  merely  a  European  war,  it 
was  a  world  war,  and  the  United  States  as  one  of  the 
leading  nations  could  not  escape  playing  a  part  in  it. 

The  Monroe  Doctrine.  Early  in  the  nineteenth 
century  the  Spanish  colonies  in  North  and  South 
America,  except  Cuba,  revolted.  They  established 
themselves  as  independent  republics  and  were  rec- 

284 


Our  Place  in  the  World  285 


V.  S.  Deparlmenl  of  filalc 


Vie.  117.  The  sword  of  George  Washington.  In  disposing  of  two  of 
his  swords  hv  will.  Washirifjlon  provided  that  they  should  not  be 
unshiNithcd  for  the  purpose  of  sheddiii!.'  blood  except  in  self-defen.se 
or  in  defense  of  our  country  and  its  rights. 

o^niizcd  as  such  by  the  United  States.  Al  ihal  lime 
(lie  sovereigns  of  eonliiienlal  Europe  were  united  in 
what  was  known  as  the  Holy  Alliance.  One  purpose 
of  this  Alliance  was  to  i)ut  down  all  democratic  uj)- 
risings,  and  our  people  feared  that  it  was  about  lo 
assist  the  king  of  Spain  in  subduing  his  former  Amer- 
ican colonies.  At  the  same  time  there  was  a  dispute 
between  Russia,  Great  Britain,  and  the  United 
States  over  territorial  claims  in  the  Pacific  northwest. 
In  view  of  these  circmnstances  President  Monroe 
in  his  message  to  Congress  in  December,  1823,  made 
two  declarations:  First,  "that  the  American  conti- 
nents by  the  free  and  independent  condition  which 
they  have  assumed  and  maintain,  are  henceforth  not 
to  be  considered  as  subjects  for  colonization  by  any 
European  powers;"  and  second,  "Witli  the  existing 
colonies  or  dependencies  of  any  European  power  we 
have  not  interfered  and  shall  not  interfere.  But  with 
the  governments  who  have  declared  their  independ- 
ence and  maintained  it,  and  whose  independence  we 
have  on  great  consideration  and  on  jusl   j)riiiciples 


286  Loyal  Citizenship 

acknowledged,  we  could  not  view  any  interposition 
for  the  purpose  of  oppressing  them  or  controUing  in 
any  other  manner  their  destiny  by  any  European 
power  in  any  other  light  than  as  the  manifestation  of 
an  unfriendly  disposition  to  the  United  States." 

These  principles,  known  as  the  Monroe  Doctrine, 
have  been  extended  from  time  to  time  until  the  Doc- 
trine has  come  to  mean  thai  the  United  Stales  will  not 
allow  any  European  or  Asiatic  power  to  attack  or  con- 
trol any  of  the  independent  countries  of  North  or  South 
America,  or  to  acquire  additional  territory  on  either 
continent.  It  is  clearly  understood  by  other  nations 
that  the  United  States  would  go  to  war  to  defend  the 
Monroe  Doctrine.  Foreign  nations  have  frequently 
expressed  their  disapproval  of  it,  but  they  have  re- 
spected our  attitude.  In  several  instances  they  have 
been  compelled  to  do  so,  as  in  the  '60's  when  an 
attempt  was  made  to  establish  a  kind  of  European 
empire  in  Mexico. 

The  existence  of  the  Monroe  Doctrine  has  made  it 
necessary  for  the  United  States  to  accept  responsi- 
bility for  the  good  conduct  of  the  Latin-American  states. 
Since  we  will  not  allow  them  to  be  attacked,  a  Euro- 
pean state  that  has  a  quarrel  with  one  of  the  weaker 
American  republics  looks  to  the  United  States  to 
secure  settlement.  The  doctrine  is  very  dear  to  the 
American  people.  One  of  the  reasons  why  the 
United  States  entered  the  Great  War  lay  in  the  fact 
that  if  the  Central  Powers  were  victorious  the  Mon- 
roe Doctrine  might  have  been  supported  only  with 
extreme  difficulty.     One  of  the  matters  most  fre- 


Our  Place  in  the  World 


287 


Fig.  118.  This  statue  was  llie  j^ift  of  tfi<>  republic  of  Voncziida  to 
the  city  of  New  York,  in  token  of  good  will  toward  the  United  Slates. 
It  represents  Simon  BoHvar,  the  South  American  Liberator. 

quently  discussed  in  connection  with  the  League  of 
Nations  was  its  probable  effect  on  the  Monroe 
Doctrine. 

Foreign  relations.  Our  relalions  with  foreign  coun- 
tries are  handled  by  the  President  through  the  Secretary 
of  State.  In  the  Slate  Depart  moiil  tliere  are  numer- 
ous bureaus  or  offices  devoted  to  tlie  diplomatic  serv- 
ice.   At  each  of  the  principal  capitals  of  the  world  we 


288  Loyal  Citizenship 

keep  a  diplomatic  representative  known  as  an  ambas- 
sador: at  less  important  capitals,  a  minister.  At 
Washington  are  similar  representatives  from  all  the 
principal  countries  of  the  world.  The  embassy,  as  the 
official  residence  of  an  ambassador  is  called,  is  re- 
garded as  part  of  his  home  country.  Ambassadors 
and  ministers  are  not  subject  to  the  laws  of  the 
country  to  which  they  are  sent,  and  they  cannot, 
according  to  established  custom,  be  arrested  or  pun- 
ished in  any  way  by  it.  If  a  country  is  dissatisfied 
with  the  conduct  of  the  ambassador  of  another  coun- 
try, it  asks  for  his  recall.  This  was  what  the  United 
States  did  in  the  case  of  Dr.  Dumba,  the  last  ambas- 
sador of  Austria-Hungary,  who  was  found  to  have 
been  plotting  against  the  peace  of  the  United  States. 

For  the  purpose  of  looking  after  the  business  inter- 
ests of  our  people  abroad,  an  American  consul  is 
stationed  in  every  important  city  of  the  world.  Con- 
suls are  appointed  by  the  President,  but  candidates 
must  first  show  that  they  are  fit  for  appointment  by 
passing  an  examination.  They  supply  this  country 
with  information  concerning  commercial  conditions 
in  the  countries  in  which  they  are  located,  and  they 
assist  American  sailors  and  travelers,  often  sending 
home  those  who  have  met  with  difficulties  abroad. 

International  law.  During  the  course  of  many  cen- 
turies, nations,  like  individuals,  have  developed  rules 
for  the  guidance  of  their  conduct  toward  each  other. 
These  rules  are  known  as  international  law.  They 
are  founded  upon  reason  and  old  custom  and  upon 
agreements  between  nations  or  groups  of  nations. 


Oiif  I* (ace  in  Ific  W  orld 


2H^) 


'I  he  rules  relating  lo  the  coikIucI  of"  war  have  been 
agreed  upon  in  a  number  of  international  gatherings. 
The  Declaration  of  Paris  in  l«i')6  laid  down  rules 
for  the  conduct  of  war  at  sea.  Since  1899  a  number 
of  international  conventions  have  been  held  at  The 
Hague,  their  purpose  being  to  promote  peace  and 
to  lessen  the  horrors  of  war.  The  status  of  tlic  l^ed 
Cross  has  been  fixed  by  international  law. 

International  law  differs  from  the  law  that  prevails 
w ithin  a  counlry  (domestic  law)  chiefly  because  there 
has  been  little  or  no  organized  provision  for  its  enforce- 
menl.  Nations  have  had  to  fight  to  assert  their  rights. 
But  since  the  days  of  the  prophet  Isaiah,  men  have 
longed  for  a  time  when  wars  shall  cease. 

The  League  of  Nations.     The   peace   conference 


Fig.  J 19. 


I  lie  fir.st  session  of  the  I^eiif^iie  of  Nations  mI  (  nne\  a, 
Switzerlaiul. 


290  Loyal  Citizenship 

that  met  after  the  Great  War  included  in  the  Treaty 
of  Versailles  the  Covenant  of  a  League  of  Nations. 
The  League  was  joined  by  many  of  the  principal 
countries  of  the  world  ;  but  the  United  States  finally 
decided  to  remain  out  of  it.     Each  member  nation 
has  one  vote  in  the  Assembly  of  the  League,  while 
the  Council,  which  is  much  more  powerful,  consists 
of  representatives  of  five  great  powers  and  of  four 
smaller  powers  selected  by  the  Assembly.     The  mem- 
ber nations  are  bound  by  the  terms  of  the  Covenant 
to  arbitrate  any  disputes  likely  to  lead  to  war  or 
else  to  submit  them  to  the  Council  of  the  League. 
The  members  agree  also  to  respect  the  territorial 
integrity  and  political  independence  of  each  other. 
The  control  of  weak  and  backward  peoples  left  with- 
out proper  direction  at  the  end  of  the  World  War  has 
been  assigned  by  mandates  of  the  League  to  one  and 
another  of  its  members.     The  League,  according  to  a 
provision  of  the  Covenant,  has  established  an  inter- 
national court  at  The  Hague.     The  offices  of  the 
League  are  at  Geneva  in  Switzerland.     All  together 
the  League  of  Nations  promises  to  be  an  influence  for 
good,  though   under    existing   conditions   it  cannot 
be  expected  to  guarantee    the  world   against  war. 
National   defense.     So   long   as   there    is    uncer- 
tainty as  to  the  success  of  any  efforts   to  prevent 
war,  it  wiU  be  wise  for  our  country  to  be  prepared 
to   defend  itself.     This   is   especially    true   because 
there   are   delicate   questions   between   the    United 
States  and  other  powers,  which  may  at  any  time 
develop    seriously.     We    know    something    of    the 


Oar  Place  in  the  }\orld 


29 


Fig.  120.   "The  Foundations  of  I'eato,"  a  newspajxT  cartoon  by 
Nelson  Harding. 

friglitful  cost  of  war  in  lives  and  money,  bul  costly  as 
even  victory  is,  it  is  by  no  means  as  costly  as  defeat. 
The  Washington  Conference.  The  United  States 
has  taken  the  lead  in  gellinfjj  the  principal  naval 
powers  to  adopt  a  practical  plan  for  the  reduction 
of  naval  armamenls.  As  a  result  of  a  conference 
held  at  Washington  at  the  close  of  lO'^l,  the  Amer- 
ican, the  British,  and  the  Japanese  navies  are  hence- 
forth not  to  exceed  a  toiniage  definitely  fixed  for 
each.    Under    their   agreement    the    tliree    nations 


292  Loyal  Citizenship 

have  "  scrapped  "  many  great  war  vessels,  and  for 
the  future  they  will  spend  on  their  navies  much  less 
than  in  the  past.  France  and  Italy  have  also  agreed 
to  limit  their  navies.  Eternal  credit  will  belong  to 
the  United  States  for  generously  offering  to  make  the 
largest  reduction  in  her  own  fleet. 

While  the  agreement  was  being  made  for  the 
limitation  of  naval  armaments,  the  four  powers 
principally  interested  —  Great  Britain,  France, 
Japan,  and  the  United  States  —  agreed  to  settle 
in  conference  any  serious  disputes  arising  out  of 
Far  Eastern  and  Pacific  questions.  Every  American 
citizen  has  a  right  to  be  proud  of  the  unselfish  way  in 
which  his  country  has  used  her  power  and  influence 
to  lead  the  world  toward  peace. 

Patriotism  in  peace.  Awful  as  war  is,  it  has  some 
good  results.  It  arouses  a  spirit  of  patriotism  and 
self-sacrifice  in  the  people.  When  our  nation  is  at 
war,  men  and  women  are  ready  to  give  up  everything 
for  their  country.  No  sacrifice  is  too  hard.  They  give 
their  money,  they  submit  to  regulation  in  a  hundred 
ways,  and  they  send  their  sons  to  battle.  If  we  main- 
tain as  high  a  spirit  of  cooperation  and  sacrifice  in 
peace  as  in  war,  there  is  no  limit  to  the  future  pros- 
perity of  our  country  and  to  its  influence  for  the  good 
of  aU  mankind. 

QUESTIONS 
Why  did  Washington  advise  against  entangling  alliances?  How 
were  we  drawn  into  the  War  of  1812  ?  How  did  the  Monroe  Doctrine 
originate  ?  What  does  it  mean  to  America  ?  What  department  of  the 
national  government  handles  our  relations  with  foreign  countries? 
What  are  ambassadors  and  ministers  ?    Describe  the  duties  of  consuls. 


Our  Place  in  (he  World 


293 


How  arc  lrcalie«  made?  What  is  international  law?  How  lias  it 
generally  haH  to  be  enforced?  Describe  liow  the  League  of  Nations 
is  organized.  \Miat  do  the  members  of  the  League  agree  to  do  if  ■.\ 
dispute  arises?  How  are  peoples  incapable  of  entire  self-govern- 
ment to  be  taken  care  of?  Should  we  be  j)repared  to  defend  our- 
selves? How  far  should  we  go  in  preparedness  for  war?  What 
part  did  the  United  States  play  in  the  reduction  of  naval  arma- 
ments? What  elements  of  the  war-time  spirit  should  we  {)reserve 
in  times  of  peace? 

TOPICS   FOR   INVESTIGATION 

The  Monroe  Doctrine.  The  army.  The  navy.  The  League  of 
Nations.     The  Washington  C.onference. 

Material  on  the  Monroe  Doctrine  can  be  found  in  any  of  tiie 
standard  histories  of  the  United  States.  For  timely  information 
concerning  the  army  and  the  navy  we  nmst  depend  upon  periodicals, 
government  reports,  and  publications  like  the  American  Year  Book. 
Periodicals  should  be  consulted  on  existing  foreign  relations.  The 
World  Almanac,  too,  will  prove  useful  for  reference. 

CIVIC   ACTIVITIES 

Introduce  either  or  both  of  the  following  resolutions  in  the  legis- 
latively organized  class,  and  allow  them  to  be  discussed : 

Resohed,  That  the  League  of  Nations  has  proved  itself  a  success. 

Resolved.  That  the  United  States  should  maintain  a  navy  as  large 
as  her  treaty  arrangements  permit. 


American  Sumismatic  Society 


APPENDIXES 


APPENDIX  ONE 

Reference  List 

General  Works  on  American  Governmenl 

Beard,  C.  A.    American  (lovernmenl  and  Polilics. 

Bryce,  James.    TIw  American  ('ummomveaUli. 

Young,  J.  T.    The  IS'riv  American  (iovernmenl. 

]\IuNRO,  \\'.  B.    The  Government  of  the  United  Slates. 

Kimball,  Everett.    The  National  Government  of  llie  L  nited  Stales. 

High  School  Textbooks 

Reed,  T.  II.   Form  and  Functions  of  American  Government. 

A.SIILEY,    The  New  Civics. 

Magruder,  American  Government. 

GuiTTEAU,  Government  and  Polilics  in  the  United  Stales. 

General  Works  on  Political  Science 

Garner,  J.  W.    Introduction  to  Political  Science. 
Leacock,  S.  J.   Elements  of  Political  Science. 
Gettell,  R.  G.    Introduction  to  Political  Science. 

Works  on  Comparative  Government 

Wilson,  Woodrow.    The  State. 

Governiiient  Ilandhook  Series,  edited  by  David  P.  Barrows  and 
Thomas  II.  Reed: 

Brooks,  R.  C.    Government  and  Politics  of  Switzerland. 

PoRRiTT,  E.    Evolution  of  the  Dominion  of  Canada. 

Kruger,  F.  K.    Government  and  Politics  of  the  German  J-rnpire. 

Sait,  E.  M.    Government  and  Polilics  of  France. 

The  Executive  Departments 

Haskin,  F.  J.    The  American  Government. 

Municipal  Government 

Beard,  C.  A.    American  City  Government. 
MuNRO,  W.  B.    Government  of  American  Cities. 

Principles  and  Methods  of  Municipal  Administration. 

Cook,  M.  L.    Our  Cities  Awake. 

Zueblin,  C.    American  Municipal  Progress. 

Howe,  F.  C.    The  Modern  City  and  Its  Problems. 

Addams,  Jane.    The  Spirit  of  Youth  and  the  City  Streets. 

297 


298  Appendix  One 

Riis,  Jacob.    Ifow  the  Other  Half  Lives. 

Mabie,  H.  W.   City  Manager  Plan  (Debaters'  Handbook  Series). 

Short  Ballot  Organization.    City  Manager  Plan. 

Rural  Local  Government 

GiLBERTSON,  W.  S.   Coiinty  Government. 

Elections,  Parties,  Etc. 

Ray,  p.  O.    Introduction  to  Political  Parlies  and  Practical  Politics. 
Merriam,  C.  E.    Primary  Elections. 
Johnston,  Alexander.    American  Politics. 
Childs,  R.  S.   Short  Ballot  Principles. 

Economics — General  Works 
Ely  and  Wicker.   Elementary  Principles  of  Economics. 
Taussig,  F.  W.   Principles  of  Economics. 

Finance  and  Taxation 

Plehn,  C.  C.    Introduction  to  Public  Finance. 
Economic  History 
BoGART,  E.  L.   Economic  History  of  the  United  States. 

Labor  Laws 
Commons  and  Andrews.   Principles  of  Labor  Legislation. 

Periodicals 
The  most  necessary  of  periodicals  is  a  good  review  of  current  news 
like  the  Literary  Digest,  Current  Opinion,  or  Revieiv  of  Reviews  or 
Current  History  (which  is  particularly  strong  on  world  politics). 
On  the  social  subjects  of  the  course  the  Survey  will  be  found  most 
useful.  On  city  government  the  American  City  will  prove  interesting. 
It  is  profusely  illustrated.  Of  the  general  reviews,  World's  Work  and 
the  North  American  Revieiv  contain  the  largest  proportion  of  articles 
of  civic  interest.  The  literary  periodicals  only  occasionally  have 
articles  which  will  be  available  for  class  use.  Many  of  the  most 
readable  articles  on  public  questions  appear  in  the  Saturday  Evening 
Post.  For  the  use  of  teachers  in  keeping  abreast  of  the  subject  the 
following  are  recommended:  American  Political  Science  Review, 
Political  Science  Review,  Political  Science  Quarterly,  National  Munici- 
pal Review,  and  Annals  of  the  Academy  of  Political  and  Social  Science. 


APPENDIX  TWO 

Constitution  of  the  United  States 

PREAMBLE 

We  the  people  of  the  United  States,  in  order  to  form  n  more  perfect 
union,  establish  justice,  insure  domestic  tran(juillily,  provide  for  tlie 
conunon  defense,  promote  tlie  general  welfari;,  and  setnire  the  bless- 
ings of  lil)erty  to  ourselves  and  our  posterity,  do  ordain  and  establish 
this  Constitution  for  the  United  States  of  America. 

ARTICLE  I 

Legislativk  Powers  Ve.sted  in  Congress 
Section  L    All  legislative  powers  herein  granted  shall  be  vested  in 
a  Congress  of  the  United  States,  which  shall  consist  of  a  Senate  and 
House  of  Representatives. 

Composition  of  the  House  of  Representatives 
Sec.  2.    1.   The  House  of  Representatives  shall  be  composed  of 
members  chosen  every  second  year  by  the  people  of  the  sineral  States, 
and  the  electors  in  each  State  shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite 
for  electors  of  the  most  numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislature. 

Qualification  of  Represenlalives. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  a  Representative  who  shall  not  have 
attained  to  the  age  of  twenty-five  years,  and  been  seven  years  a 
citizen  of  the  United  States,  and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an 
inhabitant  of  that  State  in  which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

Apportionment  of  Representatives  and  direct  taxes — Census. 

3.  Representatives  and  direct  taxes  shall  be  apjwrtioned  among 
the  several  States  which  may  be  included  within  this  Union,  accord- 
ing to  their  respective  numbers,  wliich  shall  be  determined  by  adding 
to  the  whole  number  of  free  persons,  including  those  bound  to  serv- 
ice for  a  term  of  years,  and  excluding  Indians  not  taxed,  tliree  fifths 
of  all  other  persons.  The  actual  enumeration  shtdl  be  made  within 
three  years  after  the  first  meeting  of  the  Congress  of  the  United 
States,  and  w  ithin  every  subsequent  term  of  ten  years,  in  such  man- 
ner as  they  shall  by  law  direct.  The  number  of  Representatives  shall 
not  exceed  one  for  every  thirty  thousand,  but  each  State  shall  have 
at  least  one  Representative;  and  until  such  enumeration  shall  be 
made,  the  State  of  New  Hampshire  shall  be  entitled  to  choose  three, 
Massachusetts  eight,  Rhode  Island  and  Providence  Plantations  one, 
Connecticut  five,  New  York  six.  New  Jersey  four,  Permsylvaiiia 
eight,  Delaware  one,  Maryland  six.  Virginia  ten,  North  Carolina 
five,  South  Carolina  five,  and  Georgia  three. 

299 


300  Appendix  Two 

[This  clause  has  been  superseded,  so  far  as  it  relates  to  represen- 
tation, by  Section  2  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment  to  the  Consti- 
tution.] 

Filling  of  vacancies  in  represenlalion. 

4.  When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  from  any  State, 
the  executive  authority  thereof  shall  issue  writs  of  election  to  fill  such 
vacancies. 

Seleclion  of  officers — Power  of  impeachment. 

5.  The  House  of  Representatives  shall  choose  their  Speaker  and 
other  officers;  and  shall  have  the  sole  power  of  impeachment. 

Of  the  Senate 
Number  of  senators. 

Sec.  3.  1.  The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of 
two  Senators  from  each  State,  chosen  by  the  Legislature  thereof,  for 
six  years,  and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote. 

[See  Seventeenth  Amendment.] 

Classification  of  senators — Filling  of  vacancies. 

2.  Immediately  after  they  shall  be  assembled  in  consequence  of 
the  first  election,  they  shall  be  divided  as  equally  as  may  be  into 
three  classes.  The  seats  of  the  Senators  of  the  first  class  shall  be 
vacated  at  the  expiration  of  the  second  year,  of  the  second  class  at 
the  expiration  of  the  fourth  year,  and  of  the  third  class  at  the  expira- 
tion of  the  sixth  year,  so  that  one  third  may  be  chosen  every  second 
year;  and  if  vacancies  happen,  by  resignation,  or  otherwise,  during 
the  recess  of  the  Legislature  of  any  State,  the  executive  thereof  may 
make  temporary  appointments  until  the  next  meeting  of  the  Legis- 
lature, which  shall  then  fill  such  vacancies. 

Qualifications  of  senators. 

3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the 
age  of  thirty  years,  and  been  nine  years  a  citizen  of  the  United  States, 
and  who  shall  not,  when  elected,  be  an  inhabitant  of  the  State  for 
which  he  shall  be  chosen. 

Vice-President  to  be  president  of  senate. 

4.  The  Vice-President  of  the  United  States  shall  be  president  of 
the  Senate,  but  shall  have  no  vote,  unless  they  be  equally  divided. 

Selection  of  officers — President  pro  tempore. 

5.  The  Senate  shall  choose  their  officers,  and  also  a  President  pro 
tempore,  in  the  absence  of  the  Vice-President,  or  when  he  shall  exer- 
cise the  office  of  President  of  the  United  States. 


C.onsiiUdioii  of  United  Stales  301 

Senale  lo  try  inipcaclinierits. 

6.  The  Senate  shall  have  the  sole  power  to  try  ail  inij)oa<hnients. 
When  sitting  for  that  purpose,  they  shall  he  on  oath  or  aflirniation. 
When  the  I'ri'sideiit  of  tlu;  United  States  is  tried,  the  (lliief  Justice 
shall  preside:  And  no  person  shall  he  convicted  without  the  concur- 
rence of  two  thirds  of  the  nienihers  present. 

Judymcnl  in  cases  of  imiicaclirxcnf. 

7.  Judpnient  in  cases  of  iinpeachuient  sliall  not  extend  further 
than  to  removal  from  ollice,  and  disqualilication  to  hold  and  enjoy 
any  oflicc  of  honor,  trust  or  profit  under  the  I  nited  States:  hut  the 
party  convicted  shall.  ne\(Ttheless.  he  liable  and  subject  to  indict- 
ment,  trial,  judiriiietit,  and   puiiishuient  according  to  law. 

Election  of  Sknatohs  and  Mkprk.sentatives — Meetin(;s  of 

CoNGREiiS 

Control  of  coiujressional  eleclions. 

Sec.  4.  1.  The  times,  places  and  manner  of  holding  elections  for 
Senators  and  Representatives,  shall  be  prescribed  in  each  State  by 
the  Legislature  thereof;  but  the  Congress  may  at  any  time  by  law 
make  or  alter  such  regulations,  except  as  to  the  places  of  choosing 
Senators. 

Time  for  asseniblin(j  of  Congress. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  assemble  at  least  once  in  every  year,  and 
such  meeting  shall  be  on  the  first  Monday  in  December,  unless  they 
shall  by  law  appoint  a  different  day. 

Powers  and  Duties  of  Each  House  of  Congress 
Sole  judge  of  qualifwalions  of  members — Regidalions  as  lo  quorum. 

Sec.  5.  1.  Each  house  shall  be  the  judge  of  the  elections,  returns 
and  qualifications  of  its  own  members,  and  a  majority  of  each  shall 
constitute  a  quorum  to  do  business;  but  a  smaller  number  may  ad- 
joiu-n  from  day  to  day,  and  may  be  authorized  to  compel  the  attend- 
ance of  absent  members,  in  such  manner,  and  under  such  penalties 
as  each  house  may  provide. 

Each  house  lo  delermine  ils  own  rules. 

2.  Each  house  may  determine  the  rules  of  its  proceedings,  punish 
its  members  for  disorderly  behavior,  and,  with  the  concurrence  of  two 
thirds,  expel  a  member. 


302  Appendix  Two 

Journals  and  yeas  and  nays. 

3.  Each  house  shall  keep  a  journal  of  its  proceedings,  and  from 
time  to  time  publish  the  same,  excepting  such  parts  as  may  in  their 
judgment  require  secrecy;  and  the  yeas  and  nays  of  the  members  of 
either  house  on  any  question  shall,  at  the  desire  of  one  fifth  of  those 
present,  be  entered  on  the  journal. 

Adjournment. 

4.  Neither  house,  during  the  session  of  Congress,  shall,  without 
the  consent  of  the  other,  adjourn  for  more  than  three  days,  nor  to 
any  other  place  than  that  in  which  the  two  houses  shall  be  sitting. 

Compensation,  Privileges,  and  Disabilities  of  Senators 
AND  Representatives 
Compensat  ion — Pr  iv  ileges. 

Sec.  6.  1.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  shall  receive  a  com- 
pensation for  their  services,  to  be  ascertained  by  law,  and  paid  out 
of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States.  They  shall  in  all  cases,  except 
treason,  felony,  and  breach  of  the  peace,  be  privileged  from  arrest 
during  their  attendance  at  the  session  of  their  respective  houses,  and 
in  going  to  and  returning  from  the  same;  and  for  any  speech  or  debate 
in  either  house,  they  shall  not  be  questioned  in  any  other  place. 

Disability  to  hold  other  offices. 

2.  No  Senator  or  Representative  shall,  during  the  time  for  which 
he  was  elected,  be  appointed  to  any  civil  office  under  the  authority  of 
the  United  States,  which  shall  have  been  created,  or  the  emoluments 
whereof  shall  have  been  increased  during  such  time;  and  no  person 
holding  any  office  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  a  member  of 
either  house  during  his  continuance  in  office-. 

[See  also  Section  3  of  the  Fourteenth  Amendment.] 

Mode  of  Passing  Laws 
Revenue  bills  to  originate  in  house. 

Sec.  7.  1.  All  bills  for  raising  revenue  shall  originate  in  the 
House  of  Representatives;  but  the  Senate  may  propose  or  concur 
with  amendments  as  on  other  bills. 

Laws,  how  enacted — Veto  power  of  President. 

2.  Every  bill  which  shall  have  passed  the  House  of  Representatives 
and  the  Senate,  shall,  before  it  becomes  a  law,  be  presented  to  the 
President  of  the  United  States;  If  he  approve  he  shall  sign  it,  but  if 
not,  he  shall  return  it,  with  his  objections  to  that  house  in  which  it 
shall  have  originated,  who  shall  enter  the  objections  at  large  on  their 


Conslilution  of  United  Slates  303 

joiiriiiil,  iind  protcod  to  rcronsidcr  it.  If  after  such  reconsideration 
two  thirds  of  that  house  shall  agree  to  pass  the  bill,  it  shall  he  sent, 
together  with  the  ohjeclions,  to  the  other  house,  by  which  it  shall 
likewise  be  reconsidered,  and  if  approved  by  two  thirds  of  that 
house,  it  shall  become  a  law.  But  in  all  such  cases  the  votes  of  both 
houses  shall  be  determined  by  yeas  and  nays,  and  the  names  of  the 
persons  voting  for  and  against  the  bill  shall  l)e  entered  on  the  journal 
of  each  house  respectively.  If  any  bill  shall  not  be  returned  by  the 
President  within  ten  days  (Sundays  excepted)  after  it  shall  have  been 
presented  to  him,  the  same  shall  be  a  law,  injike  manner  as  if  he 
had  signed  if,  unless  the  C'ongress  by  their  adjournment,  prevent  its 
return,  in  which  case  it  shall  not  be  a  law. 

Concnrrenl  orders,  resolnlions,  elc,  lo  he  jxissed  on  by  Presidenl. 

3.  Every  order,  resolution,  or  vote  to  which  the  concurrence  of 
the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives  may  be  necessary  (except 
on  a  question  of  adjournment)  shall  be  presented  to  the  President  of 
the  United  States;  and  before  the  same  shall  take  effect,  shall  be 
approved  by  him,  or,  being  disapproved  by  him,  shall  be  repassed  by 
two  thirds  of  the  Senate  and  Houses  of  Representatives,  according  to 
the  rules  and  hmitations  prescribed  in  the  case  of  a  bill. 

Powers  Gr.\nted  to  Congress 
Taxalion. 

Sec.  8.  1.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  rolloct  taxes, 
duties,  imposts  and  excises,  to  pay  the  debts  and  jirovide  for  the 
connnon  defense  and  general  welfare  of  the  United  States;  but  all 
duties,  imposts  and  excises  shall  be  uniform  throughout  the  United 
States; 

Borrowing  of  money. 

2.  To  borrow  money  on  the  credit  of  the  United  States; 

Regulation  of  commerce. 

3.  To  regulate  commerce  with  foreign  nations,  and  among  the 
several  States,  and  with  the  Indian  tribes; 

Nalwalizaiion  and  bankruptcy. 

4.  To  establi.sh  an  uniform  rule  of  naturalization,  and  uniform 
laws  on  the  subject  of  bankruptcies  tliroughout  the  United  States; 

Money,  iveiglds,  and  measures. 

5.  To  coin  money,  regulate  the  value  thereof,  and  of  foreign  coins, 
and  fix  the  standard  of  weights  and  measures; 


304  Appendix  Two 

Counterfeit  ing. 

6.  To  provide  for  the  punishment  of  counterfeiting  the  securities 
and  current  coin  of  the  United  States; 

Post  offices. 

7.  To  establish  post  oiGces  and  post  roads; 

Patents  and  copyrights. 

8.  To  promote  the  progress  of  science  and  useful  arts,  by  securing 
for  limited  times  to  authors  and  inventors  the  exclusive  right  to  their 
respective  writings  and  discoveries; 

Inferior  courts. 

9.  To  constitute  tribunals  inferior  to  the  Supreme  Court; 

Piracies,  felonies,  etc. 

10.  To  define  and  punish  piracies  and  felonies  committed  on  the 
high  seas,  and  offenses  against  the  law  of  nations; 

War,  marque  and  reprisal. 

11.  To  declare  war,  grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal,  and  make 
rules  concerning  captures  on  land  and  water; 

Army. 

12.  To  raise  and  support  armies,  but  no  appropriation  of  money  to 
that  use  shall  be  for  a  longer  term  than  two  years; 

Navy. 

13.  To  provide  and  maintain  a  na\'7^; 

Land  and  naval  forces. 

14.  To  make  rules  for  the  government  and  regulation  of  the  land 
and  naval  forces; 

Calling  out  militia. 

15.  To  provide  for  calling  forth  the  militia  to  execute  the  laws  of 
the  Union,  suppress  insurrections  and  repel  invasions; 

Organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining  militia. 

16.  To  provide  for  organizing,  arming,  and  disciplining,  the  mili- 
tia, and  for  governing  such  part  of  them  as  may  be  employed  in  the 
service  of  the  United  States,  reserving  to  the  States  respectively,  the 
appointment  of  the  officers,  and  the  authority  of  training  the  militia 
according  to  the  discipline  prescribed  by  Congress; 


Const ilul ion  of  I  niled  Slides  305 

Exclusive  legislation  over  Dislriel  of  ('olunihia,  etc. 

17.  To  exercise  exclusive  lefjislation,  in  all  cases  whatsoever,  over 
siuh  district  (not  exceeding  ten  miles  square)  as  may,  by  cession  of 
particular  States,  and  the  acceptance  of  Congress,  become  the  seat 
of  the  government  of  the  I  Inited  States,  and  to  exercise  like  authority 
over  all  places  purchased  by  the  consent  of  the  Legislature  of  the 
State  in  which  the  same  shall  be,  for  tlu^  erection  of  forts,  magazines, 
arsenals,  dockyards,  and  other  iKU'dful  buildings; — And 

To  enact  laws  necessary  to  enforce  (lonslilution,  etc. 

18.  To  make  all  laws  which  shall  be  necessary  and  proper  for  carry- 
ing into  execution  the  foregoing  fx)wers,  and  all  other  powers  vested 
by  this  Constitution  in  the  Government  of  the  United  Slates,  or  in 
any  department  or  ollicer  thereof. 

[For  other  powers,  see  Article  II,  Section  1 ;  Article  III,  Sections 
2  and  3;  Article  IV,  Sections  1-3;  and  Article  V.] 


Limitations  on  Powers  Granted  to  the  United  States 
Slave  trade. 

Sec.  9.  1.  The  migration  or  importation  of  such  persons  as  any 
of  the  States  now  existing  shall  think  proper  to  admit,  shall  not  be 
prohibited  by  the  Congress  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight 
hundred  and  eight,  but  a  tax  or  duty  may  be  imposed  on  such  impor- 
tation, not  exceeding  ten  dollars  for  each  person. 

Writ  of  habeas  corpus  not  to  be  suspended — Exception. 

2.  The  privilege  of  the  writ  of  habeas  corpus  shall  not  be  sus- 
pended, unless  when  in  cases  of  rebellion  or  invasion  the  public  safety 
may  re(}uire  it. 

Ex  jHJst  facto  lairs  and  l)ills  of  attainder  j)ro}nbited. 

3.  No  bill  of  attainder  or  ex  fK)st  facto  law  shall  be  passed. 

Direct  taxes. 

4.  No  capitation,  or  other  direct,  tax  shall  be  laid,  unless  in  pro- 
portion to  the  census  or  enumeration  hereinbefore  directed  to  be 
taken. 

Exports  not  to  be  taxed. 

5.  No  lax  or  duty  shall  be  laid  on  articles  exported  from  any  State. 


306  Appendix  Two 

No  preference  to  be  given  to  ports  of  any  State — Interstate  shipping. 

6.  No  preference  shall  be  given  by  any  regulation  of  commerce  or 
revenue  to  the  ports  of  one  State  over  those  of  another:  nor  shall 
vessels  bound  to,  or  from,  one  State  be  obliged  to  enter,  clear,  or  pay 
duties  in  another. 

Money,  how  draicnfrom  treasury — Financial  statements  to  be  published. 

7.  No  money  shall  be  drawn  from  the  treasury,  but  in  consequence 
of  appropriations  made  by  law;  and  a  regular  statement  and  account 
of  the  receipts  and  expenditures  of  all  public  money  shall  be  published 
from  time  to  time. 

Titles  of  nobility  not  to  be  granted — Acceptance  by  government  officers 
of  favors  from  foreign  powers. 

8.  No  title  of  nobility  shall  be  granted  by  the  United  States:  And 
no  person  holding  any  office  of  profit  or  trust  under  them,  shall, 
without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  accept  of  any  present,  emolu- 
ment, office,  or  title,  of  any  kind  whatever,  from  any  king,  prince, 
or  foreign  state. 

Powers  Prohibited  to  the  States 

Limitations  of  powers  of  the  several  States. 

Sec.  10.  1.  No  State  shall  enter  into  any  treaty,  alliance,  or  con- 
federation; grant  letters  of  marque  and  reprisal;  coin  money;  emit 
bills  of  credit;  make  anything  but  gold  and  silver  coin  a  tender  in 
payment  of  debts;  pass  any  bill  of  attainder,  ex  post  facto  law,  or  law 
impairing  the  obUgation  of  contracts,  or  grant  any  title  of  nobility. 

State  imports  and  duties. 

2.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  the  Congress,  lay  any 
imposts  or  duties  on  imports  or  exports,  except  what  may  be  abso- 
lutely necessary  for  executing  its  inspection  laws:  and  the  net  produce 
of  all  duties  and  imposts,  laid  by  any  State  on  imports  or  exports, 
shall  be  for  the  use  of  the  treasury  of  the  United  States;  and  all  such 
laws  shall  be  subject  to  the  revision  and  control  of  the  Congress. 

Further  restrictions  on  powers  of  States. 

3.  No  State  shall,  without  the  consent  of  Congress,  lay  any  duty 
of  tonnage,  keep  troops  or  ships  of  war  in  time  of  peace,  enter  into 
any  agreement  or  compact  with  another  State,  or  with  a  foreign 
power,  or  engage  in  war,  unless  actually  invaded  or  in  such  immi- 
nent danger  as  will  not  admit  of  delay. 


Conslilutioii  of  L  filled  ^States  307 

AIITICLE  II 
Executive  DRPAnTMENT 

Executive  power  vested  in  President — Term  of  offiee. 

Section  1.  1.  The  exe(uti\o  powiT  sluill  he  vostod  in  a  Prosiclcnt 
of  the  United  States  of  AincTica.  He  sliali  liold  his  oflice  durinp  the 
term  of  four  years,  and,  to^'elli(T  witli  tlie  Vice-President  chosen  for 
the  same  term,  be  elected,  as  follows: 

Appointment  and  number  of  presidenlial  electors. 

2.  Each  State  shall  appoint,  in  such  manner  as  the  Tyegislalurc 
thereof  may  direct,  a  numher  of  Elect<jrs  equal  to  the  whole  number 
of  Senators  and  Representatives  to  which  the  State  may  be  entitled 
in  the  Congress:  but  no  Senator  or  Representative,  or  person  holding 
an  oflice  of  trust  or  profit  under  the  United  States,  shall  be  appointed 
an  Elector. 

Mode  of  electing  President  and  Vice-President. 

3.  The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vote  by 
ballot  for  two  persons,  of  whom  one  at  least  shall  not  be  an  inhabitant 
of  the  same  state  with  themselves.  And  they  shall  make  a  list  of  all 
the  persons  voted  for,  and  of  the  luimhtT  of  votes  for  each;  which 
list  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit  sealed  to  the  seat  of 
the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed  to  the  President  of  the 
Senate.  The  President  of  the  Senate  shall,  in  the  presence  of  the 
Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open  all  the  certificates,  and 
the  votes  shall  then  be  counted.  The  person  having  the  greatest 
number  of  votes  shall  be  the  President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority 
of  the  whole  number  of  Electors  apjK)inted;  and  if  there  be  more  than 
one  who  have  such  majority,  and  ha\e  an  equal  number  of  votes, 
then  the  House  of  Representatives  shall  immediately  choose  by  ballot 
one  of  them  for  President:  and  if  no  jjcrson  have  a  majority,  then 
from  the  five  highest  on  the  list  the  said  house  shall  in  like  manner 
choose  the  President.  Rut  in  choosing  the  President,  the  vote  shall 
be  taken  by  States,  the  representation  from  each  State  having  one 
vote;  A  quorum  for  this  purpose  .shall  consist  of  a  member  or  uicmbers 
from  two  thirds  of  the  States,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall 
be  necessary  to  a  choice.  In  every  case,  after  the  choice  of  the  Presi- 
dent, the  person  having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  of  the  Electors 
shall  be  the  Vice-President.  Rut  if  there  should  remain  two  or  more 
who  have  (upial  votes,  the  Senate  shall  chojse  from  them  by  baUot 
the  Vice-I'rc.sidcnt. 

[This  clause  has  been  superseded  by  the  Twelfth  .\mendment  to 
the  Constitution.] 


308  Appendix  Two 

Time  of  choosing  electors  and  casting  electoral  vole. 

4.  The  Congress  may  determine  the  time  of  choosing  the  Electors, 
and  the  day  on  which  they  shall  give  their  votes;  which  day  shall  be 
the  same  throughout  the  United  States. 

Qualifications  for  the  office  of  President. 

5.  No  person  except  a  natural-born  citizen,  or  a  citizen  of  the 
United  States,  at  the  time  of  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall 
be  eligible  to  the  office  of  President;  neither  shall  any  person  be 
eligible  to  that  office  who  shall  not  have  attained  to  the  age  of 
thirty-five  years,  and  been  fourteen  years  a  resident  within  the 
United  States. 

[See  also  Article  II,  Section  I,  and  Fourteenth  Amendment.] 

Filling  vacancy  in  office  of  President. 

6.  In  case  of  the  removal  of  the  President  from  office,  or  of  his 
death,  resignation,  or  inability  to  discharge  the  powers  and  duties 
of  the  said  office,  the  same  shall  devolve  on  the  Vice-President,  and 
the  Congress  may  by  law  provide  for  the  case  of  removal,  death, 
resignation  or  inability,  both  of  the  President  and  Vice-President, 
declaring  what  officer  shall  then  act  as  President,  and  such  officer 
shall  act  accordingly,  until  the  disability  be  removed,  or  a  President 
shall  be  elected. 

Note. — Agreeably  with  the  powers  conferred  by  Clause  6,  Sec- 
tion 1,  Article  II,  of  the  Constitution,  at  its  first  session  the  Forty- 
ninth  Congress  in  1886  provided  for  the  succession  to  the  presi- 
dency in  case  of  the  removal,  death,  resignation,  or  inability  of  the 
President  and  Vice-President  by  directing  that  the  office  devolve 
first  upon  the  Secretary  of  State,  and  in  case  of  his  inability,  for  any 
reason,  to  perform  its  duties,  it  should  pass,  successively,  upon 
similar  conditions,  to  the  Secretary  of  the  Treasury,  Secretary  of 
War,  Attorney-general,  Postmaster-general,  Secretary  of  the  Navy, 
and  Secretary  of  the  Interior.  If,  however,  any  one  of  these  officers 
should  be  of  foreign  birth,  or  otherwise  disqualified,  the  presidency 
passes  to  the  next  named  in  the  list. 

Compensation  of  the  President. 

7.  The  President  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  his  services, 
a  compensation,  which  shall  neither  be  increased  nor  diminished 
during  the  period  for  which  he  shall  have  been  elected,  and  he  shall 
not  receive  within  that  period  any  other  emolument  from  the  United 
States,  or  any  of  them. 


Conslilulion  of  United  States  309 

Oalh  lo  be  taken  by  the  President. 

8.  Before  he  enter  on  the  execution  of  his  oflice,  he  shall  take  the 
foUowinf?  oath  or  aflirniation: — "I  do  solemnly  swear  (or  allinii) 
that  1  will  faithfully  execute  the  odice  of  President  of  the  I'nited 
States,  and  will  to  the  best  of  my  ability,  preserve,  protect  and 
defend  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States." 


Powers  of  President 
Commander-in-chief — May  grant  reprieves  and  pardons. 

Sec.  2.  1.  The  President  shall  be  Commander-in-chief  of  the 
Army  and  Navy  of  the  United  States,  and  of  the  militia  of  the  several 
States,  when  called  into  the  actual  service  of  the  United  States; 
he  may  require  the  opinion,  in  writing,  of  the  principal  ofhcer  in 
each  of  the  executive  departments,  upon  any  subject  relating  to  the 
duties  of  their  respective  ofTices,  and  he  shall  have  power  to  grant 
reprieves  and  pardons  for  oll'enses  against  the  United  States,  except 
in  cases  of  impeachment. 

President  may,  with  concurrence  of  tlie  senate,  make  treaties,  appoint 
ambassadors,  etc. — Appointment  of  inferior  officers,  authority  of 
Congress  over. 

2.  He  shall  have  power,  by  and  with  the  advice  and  consent  of 
the  Senate,  to  make  treaties,  provided  two  thirds  of  the  Senators 
present  concur;  and  he  shall  nominate,  and  by  and  with  the  advice 
and  consent  of  the  Senate,  shall  appoint  ambassadors,  other  public 
ministers  and  consuls.  Judges  of  the  Supreme  Court,  and  all  other 
ofDcers  of  the  United  States,  whose  appointments  are  not  herein 
otherwise  provided  for,  and  which  shall  be  established  by  law:  but 
the  Congress  may  by  law,  vest  the  appointment  of  such  inferior 
olEcers,  as  they  think  proper,  in  the  President  alone,  in  the  courts 
of  law,  or  in  the  heads  of  departments. 

President  may  fill  vacancies  in  office,  during  recess  of  senale. 

3.  The  President  shall  have  i)ower  to  fill  up  all  vacancies  that 
may  happen  during  the  recess  of  the  Senate,  by  granting  commissions 
which  shall  expire  at  the  end  of  their  next  session. 

FUHTHRU  POWKRS  OF  PrESIDFAT 

Presiderd  to  give  advice  to  Congress — May  convene  or  adjourn   it  on 
certain  occasions — To  receive  ambassadors,  etc. 
Sec.  .3.    He  shall,  from  time  to  time,  give  to  the  Congress  in- 
formation of  the  state  of  the  Union,  and  recommend  to  their  con-* 


310  Appendix  Two 

sideration  such  measures  as  he  shall  judge  necessary  and  expedient; 
he  may,  on  extraordinary  occasions,  convene  both  houses,  or  either 
of  them,  and  in  case  of  disagreement  between  them,  with  respect 
to  the  time  of  adjournment,  he  may  adjourn  them  to  such  time  as 
he  shall  think  proper;  he  shall  receive  ambassadors  and  other  public 
ministers;  he  shall  take  care  that  the  laws  be  faithfully  executed, 
and  shall  commission  all  the  officers  of  the  United  States. 
[See  also  Article  I,  Section  5.] 

All  civil  officers  removable  by  impeachment. 

Sec.  4.  The  President,  Vice-President  and  all  civil  officers  of  the 
United  States,  shall  be  removed  from  ofiice  on  impeachment  for, 
and  conviction  of,  treason,  bribery,  or  other  high  crimes  and  mis- 
demeanors. 

[See  also  Article  I,  Section  5.] 


ARTICLE  III 
Judicial  Department 
Judicial  poiver,  how  vested— Terms  of  office  and  salary  of  judges. 

Section  1.  The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States,  shall  be  vested 
in  one  Supreme  Court,  and  in  such  inferior  courts  as  the  Congress 
may  from  time  to  time  ordain  and  establish.  The  Judges,  both  of 
the  Supreme  and  inferior  courts,  shall  hold  their  offices  during  good 
behavior,  and  shall,  at  stated  times,  receive  for  their  services,  a 
compensation,  which  shall  not  be  diminished  during  their  continu- 
ance in  office. 

[See  also  Eleventh  Amendment.] 


JUMSDICTION   OF   UnITED   StATES   CoURTS 

Cases  that  may  come  before  United  Slates  courts. 

Sec.  2.  1.  The  judicial  power  shall  extend  to  all  cases,  in  law 
and  equity,  arising  under  this  Constitution,  the  laws  of  the  United 
States,  and  treaties  made,  or  which  shall  be  made,  under  their 
authority; — to  all  cases  affecting  ambassadors,  other  public  min- 
isters and  consuls;— to  all  cases  of  admiralty  and  maritime  juris- 
diction;— to  controversies  to  which  the  United  States  shall  be  a 
party; — to  controversies  between  two  or  more  States; — between  a 
State  and  citizens  of  another  State;— between  citizens  of  different 
States;— between  citizens  of  the  same  State  claiming  lands  under 


Constiliilion  of  Uniled  Stales  'M  1 

{jr<>nts   of  (lifTcront    States,    aiid    hetween   ii   State,    or   the   citizens 
ihiTt'of,   and   forcif^n  States,   citizens  or  subjects. 

Original  and  appclhiU-  Jiirisdiclion  of  Snprrrnc  Court. 

2.  In  all  cases  aU'ectinf^  ambassadors,  other  public  ministers  and 
consuls,  and  tho.se  in  which  a  State  shall  be  |)arty.  the  Supreme 
Court  shall  have  (jrif^inal  jurisdiction.  In  all  the  other  cases  befi^n? 
mentioned,  the  Supreme  Court  shall  have  appellate  jurisdiction, 
lK)th  as  to  law  and  fact,  with  such  exceptions,  and  under  sucti 
regulations  as  the  (Congress  shall   make. 

[See  also  Fifth,  Sixth,  Seventh,  and  Eighth  Amendments.] 

3.  The  trial  of  all  crimes,  except  in  cases  of  impeachment,  shall 
be  by  jury;  and  such  trial  shall  be  held  in  the  State  where  the  said 
crimes  .shall  have  been  committed;  but  when  not  committed  within 
any  State,  the  trial  shall  be  at  such  place  or  places  as  the  Congress 
may  by  law  have  directed. 

[See  also  Fifth,  Sixth,  Seventh,   and  Eighth  Amendments.] 

Treason 

Treason  defined. 

Sec.  3.  1.  Treason  against  the  United  Slates,  shall  consist  only 
in  levying  war  against  them,  or  in  adhering  to  their  enemies,  giving 
them  aid  and  comfort. 

Conviclion. 

2.  No  person  shall  be  convicttxl  of  treason  unless  on  the  testimony 
of  two  witnesses  to  the  same  overt  act,  or  on  confession  in  open 
court. 

Punishmenl  for  treason. 

3.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  declare  the  punishmenl  of 
treason,  but  no  attainder  of  treason  shall  work  corruption  of  blood. 
or  forfeiture  except  during  the  life  of  the  person  attainted. 

ARTICLE  IV 

The  States  and  the  Federal  Government 

Each  Stale  to  give  full  faith  and  credit  to  the  public  acts  and  records  of 
other  States. 

Section  1.  Full  faith  and  credit  shall  be  given  in  each  State  to 
the  public  acts,  records,  and  judicial  proceedings  of  every  other 
State.    And  the  Congress  may  by  general  laws  prescribe  the  manner 


312  Appendix  Two 

in  which  such  acts,  records  and  proceedings  shall  be  proved,  and 
the  effect  thereof. 

[See  also  Fourteenth  Amendment.] 

Interstate  privileges  of  citizens. 

Sec.  2.  1.  The  citizens  of  each  State  shall  be  entitled  to  all 
privileges  and  immunities  of  citizens  in  the  several  States. 

Extradition  between  the  several  States. 

2.  A  person  charged  in  any  State  with  treason,  felony,  or  other 
crime,  who  shall  flee  from  justice,  and  be  found  in  another  State, 
shall  on  demand  of  the  executive  authority  of  the  State  from  which 
he  fled,  be  delivered  up,  to  be  removed  to  the  State  having  juris- 
diction of  the  crime. 

Persons  held  to  labor  or  service  in  one  State,  fleeing  to  another,  to  be 
returned. 

3.  No  person  held  to  service  or  labor  in  one  State,  under  the  laws 
thereof,  escaping  into  another,  shall,  in  consequence  of  any  law  or 
regulation  therein,  be  discharged  from  such  service  or  labor,  but 
shall  be  delivered  up  on  claim  of  the  party  to  whom  such  service 
or  labor  may  be  due. 

Admission  of  new  States. 

Sec.  3.  1.  New  States  may  be  admitted  by  the  Congress  into 
this  Union;  but  no  new  State  shaU  be  formed  or  erected  within  the 
jurisdiction  of  any  other  State;  nor  any  State  be  formed  by  the 
junction  of  two  or  more  States,  or  parts  of  States,  without  the  con- 
sent of  the  Legislatures  of  the  States  concerned  as  weU  as  of  the 
Congress. 

Control  of  the  property  and  territory  of  tite  Union. 

2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  dispose  of  and  make  all 
needful  rules  and  regulations  respecting  the  territory  or  other 
property  belonging  to  the  United  States;  and  nothing  in  this  Con- 
stitution shall  be  so  construed  as  to  prejudice  any  claims  of  the 
United  States,  or  of  any  particular  State. 

Republican  government  guaranteed. 

Sec.  4.  The  United  States  shall  guarantee  to  every  State  in  this 
Union  a  republican  form  of  government,  and  shall  protect  each  of 
them  against  invasion;  and  on  application  of  the  Legislature,  or 
of  the  Executive  (when  the  Legislature  can  not  be  convened)  against 
domestic  violence. 


Consiiliiiioii  of  I  niled  Slates  313 

ARTICLE  V 

Amendments 

Amendmenls,  Iiow  proposed  and  adoplrd. 

SEtrnoN  1.  The  Congress,  whene\('r  Iwo  lliirds  of  Loth  houses 
sliall  (leeni  it  necessary,  shall  projKJse  aiiiendnienls  to  this  Con- 
stitution, or,  on  the  apphcalion  of  the  Legislatures  of  two  thirds 
of  tlie  several  States,  shall  call  a  convention  for  pro|Kjsing  aniend- 
nients,  which,  in  either  case,  shall  be  valid  to  all  intents  and  pur- 
IK)ses,  as  j)arl  of  this  Constitution,  when  ratified  l)y  the  Legislatures 
of  three  fourths  of  the  several  States,  or  by  conventions  in  three 
fourtlis  thereof,  as  the  one  or  the  other  mode  of  ralihcation  may  be 
projxjsed  by  the  Congress;  Provided  that  no  amendment  which  may 
be  made  prior  to  the  year  one  thousand  eight  hundred  and  eight 
shall  in  any  manner  affect  the  first  and  fourth  clauses  in  the  ninth 
section  of  the  first  article;  and  that  no  State,  without  its  consent, 
shall  be  deprived  of  its  equal  suffrage  in  the  Senate. 

ARTICLE  VI 

Promiscuous  Provisions 

Debts  contracted  under  the  (Confederation  secured. 

Section  1.  L  All  debts  contracted  and  engagements  entered 
into,  before  the  adoption  of  this  Constitution,  shall  be  as  valid 
against  the  United  States  under  this  Constitution,  as  under  the 
Confederation. 

[See  also  Fourteenth  Amendment,  Section  4.] 

Constitution,  laivs,  and  treaties  of  the  United  Slates  to  be  supreme. 

2.  This  Constitution,  and  the  laws  of  the  United  States  which 
shall  be  made  in  j)ursuance  thereof;  and  all  treaties  made,  or  which 
shall  be  made,  under  the  authority  of  the  United  States,  shall  be 
the  supreme  law  of  tlie  land;  and  the  judges  in  every  Slate  shall  be 
bound  thereby,  anything  in  the  Constitution  or  laws  of  any  State 
to  the  contrary  notwithstanding. 

Wlio  sliall  take  const ilutional  oatli — No  reliyious  test  as  to  o^icial 
qualification. 
.3.  The  Senators  and  Representatives  before  mentioned,  and  the 
members  of  the  several  State  Legislatures,  and  all  executive  and 
judicial  oflicers,  both  of  the  United  States  and  of  the  several  States, 
shall  be  bound  by  oath  or  aflirmation,  to  sup|K)rt  this  Constitution; 
but  no  religious  test  sliall  ever  be  required  as  a  quaIifi<'ation  to  any 
oflice  or  public  trust  under  the  United  Slates. 


314 


Appendix  Two 


ARTICLE  VII 

Ratification  of  Constitution 

Section  1.  The  ratification  of  the  conventions  of  nine  States, 
shall  be  sufficient  for  the  establishment  of  this  Constitution  between 
the  States  so  ratifying  the  same. 

Done  in  convention  by  the  unanimous  consent  of  the  States 
present  the  seventeenth  day  of  September  in  the  year  of  our 
Lord  one  thousand  seven  hundred  and  eighty-seven  and  of  the 
independence  of  the  United  States  of  America  the  twelfth. 
In  witness  whereof  we  have  hereunto  subscribed  our  names, 

GO:  WASHINGTON— Pre5jd7. 

and  Deputy  from  Virginia. 
Attest  William  Jackson,  Secretary. 


new  hampshire 
John  Langdon, 
Nicholas  Gilman. 

MA  SSA  CHUSETTS 

Nathaniel  Gorham, 
RuFus  King. 

connecticut 
Wm.  Saml.  Johnson, 
Roger  Sherman. 

NEW  YORK 

Alexander  Hamilton. 

new  jersey 
Wil:  Livingston, 
David  Rrearly, 
Wm:  Patterson, 
Jona:  Dayton. 

pennsylvania 
B.  Franklin, 
Thomas  Mifflin, 
RoBT.  Morris, 
Geo.  Clymer, 
Thos.  Fitzsimons, 
Jared  Ingersoll, 
James  Wilson, 
Gouv.  Morris. 


DELAWA;RE 

Geo:  Read, 

Gunning  Bedford,  jun., 
John  Dickinson, 
Richard  Bassett, 
Jaco:  Broom. 

maryland 
James  McHenry, 
Dan  of  St  Thos.  Jenifer, 
Danl.  Carroll. 

virginia 
John  Blair — 
James  Madison  Jr. 

north  carolina 
Wm.  Blount 
Richd.  Dobbs  Spaight. 
Hu  Williamson 

south  CAROLINA 

J.  Rutledge 

Charles  Cotesworth  Pinckney, 

Charles  Pinckney, 

Pierce  Butler. 

GEORGIA 

William  Few 
Abr  Baldwin. 


Consiiiulioii  oj  L  niled  Slates  313 

AMENDMENTS 

ARTICLE  I 

Freedom  of  Religion,  of  Speech,  of  the  Press,  and  Right  of 

Petition 
Congress  shall  make  no  law  respecting  an  establishment  of  religion, 
or  prohibiting  th('  free  exercise  thereof;  or  abridging  tlie  freedom 
of  speech,  or  of  the  press;  or  the  right  of  the  people  peaceably  to 
assemble,  and  to  petition  the  government  for  a  redress  of  grievances. 
[Proposed  Seplefiiber  ?5,   17Hi);  in  effect  December  15,   179l.\ 

ARTICLE  II 

Right  of  People  to  Rear  Arms  not  to  be  Infringed 
A  well-regulated   militia,   being  necessary   to   the  security  of  a 
free  State,  tlu;  right  of  the  people  to  keep  and  bear  arms,  shall  not 
be  infringed.    \ld.\ 

ARTICLE  III 

Quartering  of  Troops 
No  soldier  shall,   in   time  of  peace  be  quartered   in   any   house, 
without  the  consent  of  the  owner,  nor  in  time  of  war,  but  in  a  manner 
to  be  prescribed  by  law.    [/(/.] 

ARTICLE  IV 
Persons  and  Houses  to  be  Secure  from  Unreasonable 

Searches  and  Seizures 
The  right  of  the  people  to  be  secure  in  their  persons,  houses, 
papers,  and  effects,  against  unreasonable  searches  and  seizures,  shall 
not  be  violated,  and  no  warrants  shall  issue,  but  upon  probable 
cause,  supported  by  oath  or  aflirmation,  and  particularly  describ- 
ing the  place  to  be  searched,  and  the  persons  or  things  to  be  seized. 
[ld.\ 

ARTICLE  V 

Trials  for  Crimes — Just  Compensation  for  Private 

Property  Taken  for  Public  Use 
No  person  shall  be  held  to  answer  for  a  capital,  or  otherwise 
infamous  crime,  unless  on  a  presentment  or  indictment  of  a  Crand 
Jury,  except  in  cases  arising  in  the  land  or  naval  forces,  or  in  the 
Militia,  when  in  actual  service  in  time  of  war  or  public  danger; 
nor  .shall  any  person  be  subject  for  the  same  offense  to  be  twice 
put  in  jeopardy  of  life  or  limb:  nor  shall  be  compelled  in  any  c  riminal 
case  to  be  a  witness  against  himself,  nor  be  depri\e(l  of  life.  lilxTly, 
or  j)roperty.  without  due  i)rocess  of  law;  nor  shall  i)rivale  projx^rty 
be  taken  for  public  use,  without  ju.st  compensation.    [/(/.] 


Appendix  Two 


ARTICLE  VI 
Civil  Rights  in  Trials  for  Crimes  Enumerated 
In  all  criminal  prosecutions,  the  accused  shall  enjoy  the  right  to 
a  speedy  and  public  trial,  by  an  impartial  jury  of  the  State  and 
district  wherein  the  crime  shall  have  been  committed,  which  district 
shall  have  been  previously  ascertained  by  law,  and  to  be  informed 
of  the  nature  and  cause  of  the  accusation;  to  be  confronted  with 
the  witnesses  against  him;  to  have  compulsory  process  for  obtain- 
ing witnesses  in  his  favor,  and  to  have  the  assistance  of  counsel 
for  his  defense.   [Id.] 

ARTICLE  VII 
Civil  Rights  in  Civil  Sihts 
In  suits  at  common  law,  where  the  value  in  controversy  shall 
exceed  twenty  dollars,  the  right  of  trial  by  jury  shall  be  preserved, 
and  no  fact  tried  by  a  jury,  shall  be  otherwise  reexamined  in  any 
court  of  the  United  States,  than  according  to  the  rules  of  the  com- 
mon law.    [Id.] 

ARTICLE  VIII 
Excessive  Rail,  Fines,  and  Punishments  Prohibited 
Excessive  bail  shall  not  be  required,  nor  excessive  fines  imposed, 
nor  cruel  and  unusual  punishments  inflicted.    [Id.] 

ARTICLE  IX 

Reserved  Rights  of  the  People 
The  enumeration  in  the  Constitution,  of  certain  rights,  shall  not 
be  construed  to  deny  or  disparage  others  retained  by  the  people. 

[Id.] 

ARTICLE  X 

Powers  not  Delegated,  Reserved  to  States  and  People 
Respectively 

The  powers  not  delegated  to  the  United  States  by  the  Constitu- 
tion, nor  prohibited  by  it  to  the  States,  are  reserved  to  the  States 
respectively,  or  to  the  people.     [Id.] 

ARTICLE  XI 

JtJDiciAL  Power  of  United  States  not  to  Extend  to  Suits 
against  a  State 
The  judicial  power  of  the  United  States  shall  not  be  construed 
to  extend  to  any  suit  in  law  or  equity,  commenced  or  prosecuted 


Conslilution  of  United  Stales  317 

against  one  of  tlic  I  iiitcd  States  hy  citizriis  of  itiiothcr  Stale,  or 
by  citi/cns  or  subjects  of  any  foreign  State.  [I'ropoxcd  Sfplcnther 
5,  17i)'4;  in  effect  January  8,   1798.] 

ARTICLE  XII 

Election  of  Pkesident  and  Vk.k-Phksidknt 

The  Electors  shall  meet  in  their  respective  States,  and  vole  by 
ballot  for  President  and  Vice-President,  one  of  whom,  at  least,  shall 
not  be  an  inhahilanl  of  the  same  State  witli  themselves;  they  shall 
name  in  their  ballots  the  person  voted   for  as  President,   and  in 
distinct  ballots  the  person  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  they 
shall  make  distinct  lists  of  all  persons  voted  for  as  President,  and 
of  all  persons  voted  for  as  Vice-President,  and  of  the  number  of 
votes  for  each,  which  lists  they  shall  sign  and  certify,  and  transmit 
sealed,  to  the  seat  of  the  government  of  the  United  States,  directed 
to  the  President  of  the  Senate;— The  President  of  the  Senate  shall, 
in  the  presence  of  the  Senate  and  House  of  Representatives,  open 
all  the  certificates  and  the  votes  shall  then  be  counted;— The  person 
having  the  greatest  number  of  votes  for  President,   shall  be  the 
President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of 
Electors   appointed;   and   if  no   person   have  such   majority,    then 
from  the  persons  having  the  highest  numbers  not  exceeding  three 
on  the  Ust  of  those  voted  for  as  President,  the  House  of  Representa- 
tives sludl  choose  immediately,  by  ballot,   the  President.    But  in 
choosing  the   Presid(Mit,   the  votes  shall  be  taken  by   States,   the 
representation  from  each  State  having  one  vote;  a  quorum  for  this 
purpose  shall  consist  of  a  member  or  members  from  two  thirds  of 
the  State,  and  a  majority  of  all  the  States  shall  be  necessary  to  a 
choice.    And  if  the   Mouse  of  Representatives  shall  not  choose  a 
President  whenever  the  right  of  choice  shall  devolve  u|X)n  them, 
before   the   fourth   day   of   March   next   following,    then   the  Vice- 
President  shall  act  as  President,  as  in  the  case  of  the  death  or  other 
constitutional  disability  of  the  President.— The  person  having  the 
greatest   number   of   votes   as   Vice-President,    shall   be   the   Vice- 
President,  if  such  number  be  a  majority  of  the  whole  number  of 
Electors  api>ointed;  and  if  no  person  have  a  majority,  then  from 
the  two  highest  numbers  on  the  list,  the  Senate  shall  choose  the 
Vice-President;  a  (piorum  for  the  jnirpose  shall  consist  of  two  thirds 
of  the   whole   number  of  Senators,    and   a    majority   of  the   whole 
number  .shall  be  necessary  to  a  choice.  Rut  no  person  constitutionally 
ineligible  to  the  oflice  of' President  shall  be  eligible  to  that  of  Vice- 
President  of  the  United  States.    [Proposed  December   /?,    1S03;   in 
effect  September  25,  180'i.] 


318  Appendix  Two 

ARTICLE  XIII 

Slavery  Prohibited 
Section  1.    Neither  slavery  nor  involuntary  servitude,  except  as 
a  punishment  for  crime  whereof  the  party  shall  have  been  duly 
convicted,  shall  exist  within  the  United  States,  or  any  place  subject 
to  their  jurisdiction. 

Sec.  2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation.  [Proposed  February  i,  1865;  in  effect  Decem- 
ber 18,  1865.] 

ARTICLE  XIV 
Citizenship  Defined — Privileges  of  Citizens 
Citizenship. 

Section  1.  AJl  persons  born  or  naturalized  in  the  United  States, 
and  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof,  are  citizens  of  the  United 
States  and  of  the  State  wherein  they  reside.  No  State  shall  make 
or  enforce  any  law  which  shall  abridge  the  privileges  or  immunities 
of  citizens  of  the  United  States;  nor  shall  any  State  deprive  any 
person  of  life,  liberty,  or  property,  without  due  process  of  law; 
nor  deny  to  any  person  within  its  jurisdiction  the  equal  protection 
of  the  laws. 

Apportionment  of  Representatives. 

Sec.  2.  Representatives  shall  be  apportioned  among  the  several 
States,  according  to  their  respective  numbers,  counting  the  whole 
number  of  persons  in  each  State,  excluding  Indians  not  taxed. 
But  when  the  right  to  vote  at  any  election  for  the  choice  of  Electors 
for  President  and  Vice-President  of  the  United  States,  Representa- 
tives in  Congress,  the  executive  and  judicial  officers  of  a  State,  or 
the  members  of  the  Legislature  thereof,  is  denied  to  any  of  the  male 
inhabitants  of  such  State,  being  twenty-one  years  of  age,  and  citizens 
of  the  United  States,  or  in  any  way  abridged,  except  for  participa- 
tion in  rebellion,  or  other  crime,  the  basis  of  representation  therein 
shall  be  reduced  in  the  proportion  which  the  number  of  such  male 
citizens  shall  bear  to  the  whole  number  of  male  citizens  twenty-one 
years  of  age  in  such  State. 

Disquatification  for  office — Removal  of  disability. 

Sec.  3.  No  person  shall  be  a  Senator  or  Representative  in  Con- 
gress, or  Elector  of  President  and  Vice-President,  or  hold  any  office, 
civil  or  military,  under  the  United  States,  or  under  any  State,  who, 
having  previously  taken  an  oath,  as  a  member  of  Congress,  or  as 
an  officer  of  the  United  States,  or  as  a  member  of  any  State  Legis- 


ConsliluiionoJ  I  iii led  Slates  319 

laturc,  or  as  an  exoculivo  (jfTiccr  or  jiidkial  olliccr  of  any  Slato.  to 
siijyport  the  (".(jristitutioti  (jf  llic  I  iiiled  States,  sJiall  have  cnKafred 
in  insurrection  or  reheliion  aj^ainst  the  same,  or  f^iven  aid  or  comfort 
to  tlie  enemies  thereof.  But  Confjress  may  by  a  vote  of  two  thirds 
of  each  house,  remove  such  disability. 

Public  iMl  not  It)  be  qiiesi ionrd — Paymenl  of  debts  and  rlainis  incurred 
in  aid  of  rebellion  forbidden. 

Sec.  1.  Tfie  vahdity  of  the  pubHc  debt  of  the  United  States, 
authorized  by  hiw,  inchidiiif,'  debts  incurred  for  payment  of  pensions 
and  bounties  for  services  in  sup[)ressing  insurrection  or  rebelhon, 
shall  not  be  questioned.  But  neither  the  United  States  nor  any 
State  shall  assume  or  pay  any  debt  or  oblifjation  incurred  in  aid 
of  insurrection  or  rebellion  against  the  United  States,  or  any  claim 
for  the  loss  or  emancipation  of  any  slave;  but  all  such  debts,  obliga- 
tions and  claims  shall  be  held  illegal  and  void. 

Power  of  Congress. 

Sec.  5.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce,  by  appropriate 
legislation,  the  provisions  of  this  article.  [Proposed  June  16,  1866; 
in  effect  July  28,  1868.] 

ARTICLE  XV 
Elective  Franchise 

Right  of  certain  citizens  to  vote,  established. 

Section  1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote 
shall  not  be  denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any 
State  on  account  of  race,  color,  or  previous  condition  of  servitude— 

Power  of  ( '.ongress. 

Sec.  2.  The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  article  by 
appropriate  legislation.  [Proposed  February  27,  1869;  in  effect 
March  30,  1870.] 

ARTICLE  XVI 

Income  Taxes  Authorized 

The  Congress  shall  have  power  to  lay  and  collect  taxes  on  in- 
comes, from  whatever  source  derived,  without  apportionment 
among  the  several  States,  and  without  regard  to  any  census  or 
enumeration. 


320  Appendix  Two 

ARTICLE  XVII 

United  States  Senators  to  be  Elected  by  Direct  Popular 
Vote 

The  Senate  of  the  United  States  shall  be  composed  of  two  Sen- 
ators from  each  State,  elected  by  the  people  thereof,  for  six  years; 
and  each  Senator  shall  have  one  vote.  The  Electors  in  each  State 
shall  have  the  qualifications  requisite  for  Electors  of  the  most 
numerous  branch  of  the  State  Legislatures. 

Vacancies  in  Senalorships;   when  governor  may  fill  by  appointment. 

When  vacancies  happen  in  the  representation  of  any  State  in 
the  Senate,  the  executive  authority  of  such  State  shall  issue  writs 
of  election  to  fill  such  vacancies:  Provided,  That  the  Legislature  of 
any  State  may  empower  the  executive  thereof  to  make  temporary 
appointments  until  the  people  fill  the  vacancies  by  election  as  the 
Legislature  may  direct. 

This  amendment  shall  not  be  so  construed  as  to  affect  the  election 
or  term  of  any  Senator  chosen  before  it  becomes  valid  as  part  of 
the  Constitution. 

ARTICLE  XVIII 

Traffic  in  Liquor  for  Beverage  Purposes  Prohibited 

1.  After  one  year  from  the  ratification  of  this  article  the  manu- 
facture, sale,  or  transportation  of  intoxicating  liquors  within,  the 
importation  thereof  into,  or  the  exportation  thereof  from  the  United 
States  and  all  territory  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  thereof  for  bever- 
age purposes  is  hereby  prohibited. 

2.  The  Congress  and  the  several  States  shall  have  concurrent 
power  to  enforce  this  article  by  appropriate  legislation. 

3.  This  article  shall  be  inoperative  unless  it  shall  have  been 
ratified  as  an  amendment  to  the  Constitution  by  the  Legislatures 
of  the  several  States,  as  provided  in  the  Constitution,  within  seven 
years  from  the  date  of  the  submission  hereof  to  the  States  by  the 
Congress. 

ARTICLE  XIX 
Suffrage  Extended  to  Women 

1.  The  right  of  citizens  of  the  United  States  to  vote  shall  not  be 
denied  or  abridged  by  the  United  States  or  by  any  State  on  account 
of  sex. 

2.  Congress  shall  have  power  to  enforce  this  Article  by  appro- 
priate legislation. 


INDEX 


l.\DEX 


Accidents,  iFisiiraiicc  covering,  10; 

compensation  to  workmen  for, 

217-218. 
Adniinist  ration,     compared     with 

lef;islalit)n,  in  city  f,'overninerit, 

120-121. 
Agriculture,  waste  of  land  in,  236. 
Air,  transportation  by,  272. 
Air-mail  routes,  272. 
Airplane    patrols,     instituted    Ly 

Forest  Service,  260. 
Alaska,  gold  mining  in,  43;   gov- 
ernment of,  2.'5.'5;  coal  lands  in, 

261. 
Ambassador,  position  of,  287-288. 
American    Federation    of    Labor, 

212. 
Americanization,    work    of,    187- 

188;    taught    in    night   schools, 

188-189. 
American  Railway  Express,  opera- 
tion of,  273. 
Anarchy,   the   exercise  of  liberty 

without  r(!straint,  t. 
Animal  life,  conservation  of,  260— 

261. 
Appeal,  courts  of,  227. 
Appian    Way,     famous    highway, 

267. 
Arizona,  irrigation  in,  257. 
Armaments,    reduction   of  naval, 

291-292. 
Arrow  Hock  dam,  Idaho,  2.").'j,  236. 
Articles  of  Confederation,    adop- 
tion   of,     196;    superseded    by 

Constitution,  198. 
Assessment  of  property,  279. 
Associated  charities,  work  of,  182- 

183. 
Athens,    law-making    in    aiiciciil. 

102. 
Athletics,  promotion  ol'.  in  schools, 

187. 
Authority,  of  j)arenls.  2;  in  nation, 

8-9;  governmental,    and   rights 


of  th(!  iii(ii\idual,  8-9;  liberty 
and,  in  govermnent,  10;  exer- 
cise of,  by  the  majority,  12. 

Authors,  rights  of,  j)rote(trd  by 
copyright,  26. 

Autocracies,  countries  called,   70. 

Ballot,  importance  of,  68;  secrecy 
of,  77,  79;  forms  of,  78,  79,  81; 
counting  of,  80;  a  non-partisan, 
88;  use  of,  in  primary  system  of 
nomination,  92-9.3;  moven.ent 
for  short,  96-98;  an  English,  98. 

Ballot  box,  symbol  of  people's  rule, 
76. 

Baltimore,  IVld.,  jjolice  commis- 
sioner in.  111. 

Banks,  function  of.  30-31 ;  savings, 
31-36;  notes  issued  by,  11; 
checking  accounts  at,   16-18. 

Barge  Canal,  New  York,  268,  269. 

I'lTtillon  cards,  1 10. 

Bill  of  Bights,  Engli.sh,  9,  195; 
American,  66. 

Blind,  institutions  for  the,  253. 

Board  of  education,  county,  135; 
city,  137-1.38. 

Bolivar,  Simon,  statue  of,  287. 

Bonds,  public  loans  ellected 
through  sale  of.  282. 

Bosses,  political,  8.3. 

Boston,  Mass.,  j)olice  connnis- 
sioner  in.  Ml;  lack  of  street 
planning  in,  160;  the  Connnt)n 
in,  162. 

Boston  Common,  free  speech  on, 
66. 

Boycott,  u.se  of,  215. 

Brotherhood  of  l^)comoti\e  En- 
gineers, 212. 

Budgets,  making  of,  280. 

Building  and  loan  associations,  38. 

liuilding  laws,  need  of,  151,  167- 
168. 

Bush  Terminal  Docks,  110. 


323 


324 


Index 


Cabinet,  the  President's,  217. 

California,  voting  in,  103;  char- 
ters for  counties  in,  131-132; 
state  aid  for  roads  in,  266. 

Canals,  transportation  on,  268- 
269. 

Candidates  for  office,  importance 
of  means  of  estimating,  9.5-99; 
qualifications  of  good,   99-100. 

Cape  Cod  Canal,  269. 

Capital,  an  economic  force,  21; 
beginnings  of,  23;  and  wealth, 
23;  the  partner  of  labor,  23;  and 
division  of  labor,  26-28;  paying 
for,  28-29;  interest  the  pay- 
ment for  use  of,  29;  profit  an 
unusual  reward  for,  29;  obtain- 
ing of,  29-30;  a  bank's,  31; 
thrift  and,  33. 

Carriers  of  contagious  diseases, 
150. 

Caucuses,  nomination  by,  90. 

Character  of  political  candidates, 
99-100. 

Charity,  public,  181-184. 

Checks,  as  money,  46-48. 

Chicago,  111.,  board  of  education 
in,  137;  playgrounds  and  recrea- 
tion centers  in,  164-165. 

Child  labor,  laws  regulating,  246. 

Children,  position  of,  in  family,  2. 

Cities,  growth  and  development 
of,  109-111;  New  York  an 
example  of  growth  of,  111-112; 
statistics  of  growth  of,  112-113; 
increasing  wants  of,  in  develop- 
ment from  villages,  114-115; 
government  of,  118  ff.;  viewed 
as  business  corporations,  118- 
120;  legislation  and  administra- 
tion in  government  of,  120-121; 
forms  of  government  of,  121- 
123;  relation  to  counties  in 
which  located,  129;  manage- 
ment  of   schools   in,    137-138; 


planning  of,  160-170;  public 
utilities  in,  172-179;  costs  of 
government  of,  276;  indebted- 
ness of,  and  of  United  States 
government,  282. 

Citizenship,  good,  6;  duties  and 
privileges  of,  11-12;  meaning  of 
American,  63;  how  acquired, 
63-64 ;  privileges  of,  64-68 ;  right 
to  vote  the  crowning  privilege 
of,  68;  duties  of,  70  ff.;  respon- 
sibilities of,  71-72;  loyalty  the 
chief  essential  of,  74;  duties  of, 
in  elections,  76-81;  duties  of, 
toward  political  parties,  85; 
law-making  duties  of,  101-105; 
duties  relating  to  preservation 
of  health,  148-158;  training  for, 
186-191;  jury  duty  one  of  im- 
portant responsibilities  of,  225. 

City-manager  plan  of  city  govern- 
ment, 121-123. 

Civic  beauty,  attention  to,  165- 
167. 

Civic  centers,  167. 

Clan,  as  social  group,  7;  progres- 
sion from,  to  nation,  7-8. 

Clearing  house,  work  of,  47. 

Cleveland,  Ohio,  civic  center  in, 
167. 

Closed  shop,  defined,  243. 

Coal,  conservation  of,  261-262. 

Coast  and  Geodetic  Survey,  268. 

Coins,  modern  and  ancient,  43,  45- 

Collective  bargaining,  241-242. 

Combines,  avoidance  of  competi- 
tion by,  56. 

Commission  plan  of  city  govern- 
ment, 121-123. 

Committee  system  in  legislative 
bodies,  207-209. 

Communications,  development  of, 
264-274. 

Comnmnity,  the  local,  109-116; 
process  of  development  of,  113- 


Index 


32: 


115;  forcos  tcndiiifj  to  weaken, 
116;  and  health,  118;  planning 
of,  160-170. 

Conuiiunity  spirit,  an  essential 
quality,  'lir)-116. 

Competition,  benefits  of,  20-21; 
good  and  evil  effects  of,  in  rela- 
tion to  jjfices,  55-56. 

Congress,  United  States.  205-212; 
relation  of  President  to,  219. 

Congressional  conanittees,  207- 
209. 

Congressional  Record,  as  source 
of  information  about  political 
candidate,  95-96. 

Congressional  townships,  125. 

Conservation,  meaning  of,  255; 
progress  in,  255-262. 

Constabulary,  state,  1 16. 

Constitution  of  United  States,  9; 
provisions  of,  61-68;  drafting 
and  adoption  of,  198;  Federal 
system  under,  198-199;  implied 
powers  of,  199-200;  Supreme 
Court  chief  guardian  of,  230; 
text  of,  299-320. 

Constitutional  system,  the,  195- 
201. 

Constitutions,  state,  19.5-196. 

Consuls,  duties  of.  288. 

Contract,  i)rotection  of  right  of, 
by  law,  222. 

Conventions,  national,  216-217. 

Convention  system  of  nomination, 
90. 

Cooperation,  in  the  family,  2; 
liberty  and,  1;  within  a  nation, 
8;  in  work,  14-21;  poverty 
traceable  to  imperfect,  183- 
181. 

Copyright,  reason  for,  26. 

County,  governmental  division, 
129;  government  of,  129-133; 
and  the  schools,  135;  health 
ofllcer  in,  158. 


Courts,  fun(ti<jn  of,  221;  trial, 
223-221;  pro<edure  in,  221-227; 
appellate,  227;  Federal,  227- 
230;  Supreme  Court  of  United 
States,  228,  229;  respect  for, 
230;  juvenile.  251-252. 

Crimes,   puni.shment  of,  222-223. 

Criminals,  treatment  of,  250-251. 

Currency.    See  Money. 

Dairies,  inspection  of,  156. 

Deaf  and  duml).  care  of,  253. 

Debts,  public,  281-282. 

Declaration  of  Independence,  9, 
63. 

Defectives  and  delinquents,  care 
of,  250,  252-253. 

Demand,  supply,  competition,  and, 
51-59. 

Democracy,  meaning  of.  70;  exam- 
ples of,  70-71;  direct  vs.  repre- 
sentative, 102. 

Departments  of  government,  217. 

Depreciation  of  wealth,  28-29. 

Diminishing  returns,  law  of.  53. 

Direct  legislation,  meaning  of,  101. 

Diseases,  contagious,  preventive 
measures.  118-149;  quarantine 
a  protective  niea.sure,  119-150. 

District  of  Columbia,  government 
of,  237. 

Divi-sion  of  labor,  capital  and,  26- 
28. 

Docks,  provision  for,  170. 

Drinking  cups,  public.  151. 

Education,  training  for  citizen- 
ship by,  186;  immediate  pur- 
pf)ses  of,  186-187;  social  value 
of,  190-191. 

Election  districts,  77. 

Elections,  voting  in,  76-79;  hon- 
esty of,  80-81;  national  and 
local,  87-88. 

Electors,  presidential,  216. 


326 


Index 


Electricity,  supply  of,  in  cities, 
175-177. 

Employers'  Liability  Law,  2 18. 

Ephebic  oath,  the,  118. 

Erie  Canal,  construction  of.  111; 
transportation  on,  268. 

Erosion  of  farm  lands,  256. 

Europe,  relations  between  United 
States  and,  281-287. 

Examinations  for  policemen,  142. 

Executive  department  of  govern- 
ment, 214-219. 

Expenditures,  governmental,  280- 
281. 

Express  service,  273. 

Family,  the,  1  ff.;  as  protector  and 
provider,  1;  cooperation  among 
members,  2;  authority  of  par- 
ents, 2;  as  a  type  of  government, 
2-3;  enforcement  of  parents' 
law  in,  3;  liberty  and  restraint 
in,  3-4;  and  the  clan,  7. 

Farms,  conservation  of,  256. 

Federal  Aid  Road  Act,  266. 

Federal  Reserve  Banks,  44. 

Federal  system,  the,  198-199. 

Feeble-minded,  treatment  of,  252- 
253. 

Fees,  raising  of  money  by,  275. 

Finances  of  governments,  275-282. 

Fire,  prevention  of,  in  cities  and 
towns,  145;  protection  against, 
in  rural  communities,  145;  de- 
struction of  forests  by,  258-260. 

Fire  departments,  city,   143-144. 

Food,  inspection  of,  157. 

Foreign  relations  of  United  States, 
287-288. 

Forests,  wasting  of,  256,  258;  con- 
servation of,  258;  destroyed  by 
fires,  258-260. 

Forest  Service,  United  States,  259. 

Franchise,  defined,  172. 

Fraternal  societies,  in8uranceby,40. 


Freedom  of  speech,  guaranteed 
American  citizens,  66. 

Garbage  collection  and  disposal, 
153-154. 

Gas,  supply  of,  in  cities,  175-176. 

General  property  tax,  279. 

Gold,  basis  of  system  of  currency, 
43. 

Gold  certificates,  44. 

Government,  family  as  a  type  of, 
2-3;  made  effective  by  use  of 
force,  3;  centers  about  family 
as  social  unit,  4;  of  nation,  8; 
liberty  and  authority  in,  10; 
different  forms  of,  70-71;  re- 
sponsibility of  citizens  concern- 
ing, 71-72;  increasing  complex- 
ity of,  72-73;  local,  109-116;  of 
cities,  118-123;  town  and  town- 
ship, 12.5-128;  county,  129-133; 
protection  of  life  and  property 
first  duty  of,  139;  colonial,  195; 
of  states,  in  early  times,  195- 
196;  of  United  States,  196-201; 
three  departments  of,  203;  law- 
making (legislative)  depart- 
ment, 203-212;  law-enforcing 
(executive)  department,  214- 
219;  law-applying  (judicial)  de- 
partment, 221-231;  of  terri- 
tories and  dependencies,  232- 
236;  of  District  of  Columbia, 
237;  duty  of,  in  labor  disputes, 
245-246;  cost  of,  275;  raising  of 
money  by,  275-279;  budget  sys- 
tem in,  280;  increase  in  expen- 
ditures of,  280-281. 

Governor  of  state,  duties  of,  214- 
216. 

Grand  jury,  organization  and 
duties  of,  226-227. 

Guam,  government  of,  235-236. 

Habeas  corpus,  writ  of,  67. 


Index 


327 


Iladli-y.   Arllmr  T..   (jiKilrd.    I <).',. 
Iliirliois,  iiiiprosfiiiciil   oC.   '2<)H. 
Ilariliiij,'.    I'rcsidciil.    71;    n-adiiij,' 

iiK'ssiifjo    Ix-forc    ('.oiif^Tcss.    ill!{. 
|[a\vaii.  fioNcrniiiciit  of.  '2'.V.\. 
Health.    i)n's(T\  ation   of,    I  U>    (1.; 

hoards  and  olliccrs  of,  ].'J7-1.'>8. 
Highways,  hiiildiiif^'of.  261-267. 
Ih)ly    Mliaiicf.    \h)riro(i   Doctrino 

an  oll'sct  Id.  2«.'). 
IIoiiios,  owniuf?  of.  '.]6~'M]. 
Housirif^  in  cities,  {jrohlcin  of.  l.ll; 

helped   hy   right    city   j)lanning, 

167-168;    relation    to    poverty, 

18.3. 

Identification,  Bureau  of,  in  police 

department,  1 10-141. 
Illinois,  township  government  in, 

127;  county  hoards  in,  129. 
Immigrants,  elVcct,  of,  on  connnu- 

nity  sj)irit.  1 16;  Americanization 

work  for.  187-190. 
ImpeachmcFit  of  judges,  229-230. 
Imports,  taxes  on,  276-277. 
Incineration,   disposal  of  garhage 

hy,  1.>1. 
Incomes,  taxation  of,  27.").  278. 
Increasing  returns,  law  of.  .'53. 
Indiana,  township  government  in, 

127. 
Indictment     of     [lersons     charged 

with  crime.  226-227. 
ludi\idual,  rights  of  the.  8-9. 
Inheritances,  taxation  of,  278. 
Initiative,    the.   defined,    101;   ad- 
vantages and  disadvantages  of 

referendum  and,  101. 
Insane,  care  of  the,  2.'J2-2.53. 
Institutes,  teachers',  13.j. 
Insurance,  advantages  of,  38    10; 

forms  of,  10. 
Interest,     d«>(ined.     29;     i)aid     hy 

savings  banks,  3iS-36. 
Internal  revenue  taxes,   277-278. 


liilrrrialioiial  law.  288-289 
Interstate      ( lonunerce      t'.onunis- 

sion.  regulati(jn  of  railnjads  hy. 

270. 
1  in  en  I  ions,  patenting  of,  26;  eifect 

of.  on  gnnslh  of  cities,  109,  111. 
Iowa,    township    government    in. 

127. 
Irrigation,  woik  of,  2.")."),  2.")7. 
Irrigation  districts.  I  78    1 79. 

.ludges,  election  or  aj)pointment 
of,  22.5;  supreme-court  and 
appellate.  227;  of  l'\'deral  courts. 
227,  229;  of  United  .States  Su- 
j)reme  Court,  228.  229. 

Judicial  department  of  go\ern- 
ment,  221-231. 

Jury,  trial  hy.  67,  224-225. 

Justice  courts,  223-221. 

Ju\enile  courts,  creation  of,  2.51- 
252. 

Kansas,  township  government   in, 

127;  pay  of  legislators  in,  205; 

Industrial  Court  in,  216. 
Kansas  City.  Mo.,  jiolice  conuuis- 

sioner  in,   1  11 ;  park  system  in. 

161. 
King,  position  and  |K)wer  of.  8-9. 

Lahor,  wages  and,  56-58;  proh- 
lems  of,  2 1 1-248.  Sec  also  \\  ork. 

Kahoratories.  jxihlic-health.  150- 
151;  testing  of  milk  in.  156. 

Lal)or  Hoard,  creation  of,  271. 

Lahor  unions.  211-212;  and  lalxjr 
nionoj)oly.  2  12-2  II. 

Land,  reclamation  and  conserva- 
tion of.  179.  255-2.56. 

Latin-American  states,  responsi- 
bility of  United  States  for,  286. 

Law,  as  exemplilied  in  the  family. 
3;  force  nece.s.sary  to  make  ef- 
fective, 3;  the  making  of,  203- 


328 


Index 


212  ;  carrying  out  the,  211-219  ; 
interpreting  and  applying  the, 
221-230;  respect  for,  and  obe- 
dience, to,  230  ;  affecting  labor, 
245-248 ;  international,  288-289. 

Law-making  by  citizens,  101-105. 

Lawyers,  work  of,  225-226. 

League  of  Nations,  289-290. 

Legal  tender,  defined,  44. 

Legislation,  administration  and, 
in  city  government,  120-121. 

Legislative  reference  bureaus,  207. 

Legislatures,  state,  204-205. 

Liberty,  and  restraint,  3-4 ;  with- 
out restraint  becomes  anarchy, 
4;  authority  and,  in  govern- 
ment, 10 ;  and  self-government, 
11-12  ;  guaranteed  to  American 
citizens,  63 ;  protection  of,  by 
provisions  of  Constitution,  65. 

Life  Saving  Station  Service,  268. 

Liglit  house  Service,  268. 

Lincoln  Highway,  section  of,  266. 

Lindsey,  Judge  Ben,  and  Denver 
juvenile  court,  251-252. 

Loans,  public,  by  means  of  bonds, 
282. 

Local  government,  109-116. 

Los  Angeles,  charter  for  county 
of,  131-132;  water  supply  of 
city,  155  ;   harbor  of,  170. 

Louisiana,  parishes  in,  129. 

Loyalty,  supreme  requisite  to 
good  citizenship,  74. 

Lynching,  viewed  as  murder,  223. 

Machines,  political,  83. 

Magazines,  as  sources  of  informa- 
tion about  poUtical  candidates, 
95. 

Magna  Charta,  significance  of, 
9. 

Majority,  plurality  and,  83-81. 

Mandates  of  the  League  of  Na- 
tions, 290. 


Marcus  Aurelius,  quotation  from, 
240. 

Massachusetts,  ballot  used  in,  78, 
79 ;  Shays's  Rebellion  in,  197 ; 
state  aid  for  roads  in,  266. 

Mayor  and  council  plan  of  city 
government,  121-123. 

Metals,  conservation  of,  261. 

Michigan,  township  government 
in,  127  ;  type  of  county  boards 
in,  129. 

Milk,  securing  of  pure,  155-156. 

Minimum  wage,  the,  246. 

Ministers,  United  States,  at  for- 
eign capitals,  288. 

Minnesota,  township  government 
in,  127. 

Missouri,  township  government 
in,  127. 

Monarchies,  government  in,  8-9; 
autocratic,  70  ;  constitutional  or 
linaited,  71. 

Money,  representation  of  capital 
as,  29-30  ;  use  of,  by  banks,  30- 
31 ;  function  of,  42  ff. ;  distinc- 
tion between  value  and,  12-43; 
forms  of,  43-44;  a  medium  of 
exchange,  44-46 ;  checks  as, 
46-48;  methods  of  raising,  by 
governments,  275-276. 

Monopolies,  working  of,  53-55; 
public-utility,  172. 

Monroe  Doctrine,  origin  of,  285- 
286;  extension  of  principle  of, 
286 ;  dear  to  American  people, 
286-287. 

Mortgages,  real-estate,  35. 

Nation,  development  of  the,  7-8. 

Natural  gas,  waste  of,  262. 

Naturalization,  attaining  of  citi- 
zenship by,  63-64. 

Nebraska,  township  government 
in,  127. 

New   England,  town   government 


Index 


329 


in,  12.');  schools  iiiul  sc-liool  tlis- 
trirts  in.  1.56. 

New  Jrrsey,  count  N  hoiirds  in.  12'); 
stale  aid  for  roads  in,  '2h(). 

Newspapers,  as  sources  of  infor- 
mation alxinl  political  candi- 
dates, 93. 

New  ^Ork  ("ily,  an  exain|)le  of 
growth  of  cities,  1  1 1-1 12;  hoard 
of  education  in,  l.>7;  street  plan 
of,  162,  16:5;  elevat(>d  railway 
system  in,  171;  American  Mu- 
seum of  Nat  lual  History  in,  \i\9. 

New  York  Stale,  lownshij)  j,'o\ - 
ermneni  in,  127;  county  hoard 
in,  129;  pay  of  law-makers  in, 
205;  state  aid  for  roads  in,  266; 
canals  in.  268-269. 

Nomination.  syst<>ms  of,  90-91. 

North  Dakota.  townshi|»  j;overn- 
ment  in.  127. 

Northwest  Territory,  organizii- 
tion  of,  2:?2. 

Notes,  |>romissory,  31;  money 
lent  by  banks  on,  ."55;  treasury, 
41. 

Nurses,  school,  137. 

Occupation,  <iiN  ision  of,  1  1-16. 
See  Work.   . 

Oceans,  trans|K>rlalion  on,  261, 
267. 

Ohio,  township  piNcrnrMcnl  in, 
127. 

Oil,  conser\alion  of,  262. 

Oklahoma,  township  ^'overrnnent 
in,  127. 

Old-age  insmance.   10. 

Olympic  National  I'oresl,  Wash- 
ington, lire  in,  2.'')9. 

Ordinance  of  I  787.  2:52. 

Oregon,  pay  of  legislators  in.  205. 

Outdoor  poor  relief.  WW. 

Ownership,  jniblic  and  private, 
173-175. 


I':iri,iiiia  (   ati.il.  iiiiililing  of.  '2<>'>. 

I':ii  i^li.  go\  ernmcnlal  di\  ision,  129. 

Parks  and  plaxgrounds,  cil>,  162, 
163    16.-,. 

Parlies,  political.  }!:5  <'5«. 

Patents,  reason  for.  26. 

Patriotism,  spirit  of,  aroused  by 
war,  292. 

Payne,  John  lloNNartl.  hosnc*  of. 
.37. 

Pennsylvania,  township  govern- 
ment in,  127;  state  constabu- 
lary in,  116;  pay  of  law-makers 
in,  205. 

Personal  safely,  right  of.  222. 

Petitions,  signing  of,  105. 

Philippine  Islands,  go\ernment 
of,  2:5 1,  2:55. 

l*ickeling  by  strikers,  215. 

Pinchot.  (iilford,  ("hief  Forester, 
258. 

Plarming.  conununity,   160-170. 

Playgrounds.  Sec  Parks  and  play- 
grounds. 

Plurality,  defined,  83. 

Police,  protection  of  life  and  prop- 
erty by,  139;  classes  of,  139-1 10; 
organization  of,  111-112;  jx'r- 
sonnel  of,  I  12;  protection  by, 
in  rural  conununiti(>s,   1 15-1 16. 

Polling  j)laces  in  elections,  77. 

Poll  taxes,  278. 

Poor  relief.    .Sec  Poxcrty. 

I'opulation  of  cities,  i  12-1 1:5. 

Porto  Hico.  go\('rnment  of,  233. 

Postal  sa\  ings  banks.  ;56. 

I'ostal  service,  govcrmuent,  272- 
273. 

Post  Ollicc  Depart menl.  272. 

Poverty,  causes  of.  181;  public 
relief  of,  181-182;  removal  of 
causes  of,  183. 

President  of  United  States,  duties 
of,  211;  election  of,  216-217; 
jx)wers   of,    217-219;    messages 


330 


Index 


of,  to  Congress,  219;  position  of, 
219. 

Press,  freedom  of  the,  66 

Prices,  distinction  between  money, 
value,  and.  42-13;  defined,  48; 
rise  and  fall  of,  48-49;  effect  of 
demand,  supply,  and  competi- 
tion on,  51-56. 

Primary  system  of  nomination, 
90-94. 

Prisons,  reformatories  and,  251. 

Probation,  of  convicted  persons, 
251. 

Production,  importance  of  keeping 
up,  244-245. 

Profit,  defined,  29. 

Profits,  taxes  on,  278.  • 

Property,  defined,  23;  rights  of, 
23-25;  security  of,  67;  protec- 
tion of  rights  of,  by  law,  222; 
taxation  of,  279. 

Protective  tarifTs,  277. 

Public  charges,  care  of,  250. 

Public  Health  Service,  158. 

Public  ownership,  arguments  for 
and  against,  173-175. 

Pubhc-utility  commissions,  177- 
178;  regulation  of  railroads  by, 
270. 

Quarantine,  necessity  for,  in  cases 
of  contagious  disease,  149- 
150. 

Railroads,  relation  of,  to  growth 
of  cities.  111;  correct  location  of 
lines,  in  city  plaiming,  170; 
regulation  of,  270;  provisions 
of  Act  of  1920  affecting,  271- 
272;  various  plans  for  manage- 
ment of,  272. 

Reclamation  of  waste  lands,  178- 
179,  255. 

Reclamation  Service,  United 
States,  255. 


Recreation  centers.  See  Parks  and 
playgrounds. 

Referendum,  defined,  101;  advan- 
tages and  disadvantages  of 
initiative  and,  104. 

Regulation  of  public  utilities, 
177-178. 

Rent,  defined,  58-59;  and  the 
single  tax,  59. 

Representatives,  state,  204-205 ; 
United  States,  206-207. 

Republics,  governments  called,  71. 

Restraint,  fiberty  and,  3-4. 

Rights,  protection  of,  by  law, 
222. 

Rio  Grande  irrigation  project,  179. 

Rivers,  transportation  on,  268. 

Roads,  construction  of,  264-267. 

Rome,  Italy,  Forum  of,  168-169. 

Roosevelt,  T.,  quoted  on  compe- 
tition, 21;  on  good  laws,  62. 

Rural  schools,  136. 

St.  Louis,  Mo.,  McKinley  High 
School  in,  137;  pohce  commis- 
sioner in,  141. 

Salt  River  irrigation  project,  257. 

Samoa,  naval  governor  of,  236. 

San  Francisco,  Cal.,  street  plan  in, 
160;  municipal  ownership  of 
street-car  Unes  in,  177. 

Sanitation,  progress  in,  152,  rural, 
158. 

Saving,  meaning  of,  26;  relation  of 
thrift  to,  33;  necessity  for,  33- 
34. 

Savings  banks,  function  of,  34^36 ; 
postal,  36. 

Schools,  local  management  of. 
135-138;  health  examination  of 
pupils  in,  157;  attention  paid  to 
physical  welfare  in,  186-187; 
Americanization  work  in,  188- 
189. 

School  savings  banks,  35. 


Index 


:VM 


Seattle,  Wash.,  iiuiiiicipal  street 
railway  in,  177. 

Selectmen,  board  of,  in  towns,  1:27. 

Self-government,  liberty  and,  11- 
12. 

Senators,  state,  201-20."r,  United 
States,  20.5-206. 

Sewers  and  s(>waf?e  disposal  in 
cities  and  towns,  1.^2-1.53. 

Short -ballot  movement,  96-98. 

Sickness,  chief  cause  of  poverty, 
181;  measures  for  reducing',  1H;5. 
See  Health. 

Silver  certificates,  41. 

Single  tax,  theory  of,  .'S9. 

Smallpox,  vaccination  against, 
151-152. 

Social  insurance,  10. 

Social-reform  laws,  18.3. 

Soldiers,  vaccination  of,  151-152. 

"Soo"  Canal,  269. 

South  Dakota,  township  govern- 
ment in,  128. 

Speech,  freedom  of,  66. 

Springfield,  Mass.,  niuniripal 
buildings  at,  119. 

State,  Department  of,  217. 

States,  the  county  a  unit  for  ad- 
ministration of  business  of,  132- 
133;  early  goNcrnmcnts  in,  195- 
196;  powers  of,  under  the  Con- 
stitution. 198-199;  legislatures 
of,  201-205;  duties  of  governors 
as  executives  of,  21 1-216. 

States-rights  doctrine,  199. 

Steamboat  Inspection  Service, 
268. 

Street-car  .service,  provision  of 
good,  170;  a  public  utility,  172, 
177. 

Street  planning,  160-162. 

Strike,  weapon  of  organized  labor, 
242. 

Student  self-government,  11. 

Success,  achieved  by  work,  21. 


Suit,  story  of  a,  to  show  coiJjM'ra- 
tion  in  work.  16-19. 

Su[)piy,  demand  and,  51-53. 

Supreme  (".ourt.  1  iiited  States, 
228,  229;  chief  guardian  of  Con- 
stitution. 2.30. 

Swamjjs,  dr  linage  of,  179,  255. 

TarilVs.  kinds  of,  277. 

Taxation,  raising  money  by,  275; 
of  imjKjrts,  276-277;  internal 
revenue,  277-278;  of  inlicri- 
tances,  incomes,  and  profits. 
278;  state  and  local,  278-279; 
burden  of,  born<»  by  whole  com- 
munity, 279-280. 

Telegraph  service,  regulation  of. 
273-274. 

Telephone  service,  a  public  utilit  y, 
172,  173;  regulation  of,  273- 
271. 

Territories,  government  of,  232- 
236. 

Texas,  senate  chamber  of  state  of, 
201. 

Thrift,  defined,  33;  and  capital,  3!5; 
necessity  for,  33-31. 

I'hrift  stamps,  encouragement  of 
saving  by,  .36. 

Towels,  tlangers  of  ])ublic.  151. 

Towns.  125;  in  New  luigland,  125; 
officers  of,  127,  128. 

Townships,  organization  and  gov- 
ernment of,  125-128. 

Trades  unions.    See  Labor  unions. 

Transportation,  relation  betw(>en 
growth  of  cities  and,  109-111; 
facilities  for.  to  be  included  in 
cormnunity  planning,  170;  pulw 
lic  vs.  private  ownership  of 
means  of,  in  cities.  177;  im|)or- 
tance  of  easy  means  of,  261;  by 
highways,  261-267;  by  water, 
267-270;  bv  raih-..a(Is."270;  by 
air,  272. 


332 


Index 


Transportation  Act  of  1920,  270- 

272. 
Trees.    See  Forests. 
Trial  by  jury,  67,  224. 
Trials,  proredure  in,  22.5-226. 
Tuberculosis,  due  to  crowding  of 

people.    151;   testing  cows   for, 

156. 
Tutuila,  government  of,  2.35. 
Typhoid  fever,  vaccination  against, 

151-152. 

Unemployment,  insurance  cover- 
ing, 40;  as  a  cause  of  poverty, 
181. 

Unions,  labor,  241-242;  and  labor 
monopoly,  242-214. 

United  States,  development  of 
constitutional  system  in,  195- 
200;  growth  of  powers  of,  200- 
201;  departments  of  govern- 
ment of,  203  ff. ;  relations  with 
Europe.  281-287. 

United  States  courts,  227-230. 

Utilities,  pubUc,  172-179. 

Vaccination,  a  duty  of  citizenship, 
151-152. 

Value,  distinction  between  money, 
prices,  and,  42-43. 

Veto,  use  of,  by  governor  or  Presi- 
dent, 210;  pocket,  212. 

Vigilance  required  of  citizens  in 
elections,  81. 

Villages,  life  in  the  first,  109; 
growth  of  cities  from,  109-111. 

Virgin  Islands,  purchase  of,  233; 
government  of.  236. 

Vocational  selection,  study  of,  186. 

Voting,  as  a  right  of  American 
citizens,  68;  quaUfications  for, 
76-77;  forms  of  ballot  for,  78, 
79;  at  primaries,  90-94;  first 
step  in,  the  proper  estimating 
of  candidates,  95-100;  initiative 


and  referendum,  101;  coming  to 
a  decision  in,  101;  in  town  meet- 
ings, 125-127. 
Voting  machines,  80. 

Wages,    28;   facte  rs   determining, 

56-57;  modern  increase  in,  57- 

58. 
Wampum,  use  of,  as  money,  45. 
War  measures,  appUed  to  lines  of 

communication  and  transporta- 
tion, 270. 
Washington,  D.  C,  street  plan  of, 

161;  Capitol  at,  201. 
Washington,      George,     constitu- 
tional convention  presided  over 

by,  198;  elected  President,  198; 

sword  of,  285. 
Washington  Conference  of  1921, 

agreements  between  nations  at, 

291-292. 
Water,    transportation    by,    267- 

270. 
Water  supply,  need  of  pure,  155 ; 

an    example    of   public    utility, 

175. 
Waterways,  natural,  267-268. 
Ways  and  Means,  Committee  on, 

208. 
Wealth,  relation  of  capital  and,  23. 
Weehawken,  N.  J.,  railroad  yards 

at,  271. 
Wharves,    planning    for    suitable, 

170. 
Whitman,  Walt,  on  the  mission  of 

government,  110. 
Whittier,  J.  G.,  quotation  from.  68. 
Wild   life,   conservation   of,    260- 

261. 
William  and  Mary,  College  of,  in 

Virginia,  190. 
Williamsburg,  Va.,  courthouse  at, 

130. 
Wisconsin,   township  government 

in,  127  ;   county  boards  in,  129. 


Index 


333 


Work,  necessity  for,  11;  division 
of.  11-16;  kinds  of,  19-20;  com- 
petition essential  to  successful, 
20-21;  needful  to  success.  21; 
capital  t  lie  partner  of.  21,  2.?-;}|. 

\\  orknien's  compensation,  2 17- 
248. 


\\orsliip.  freedom  of,  66. 

"Yellowstone     i\'alit»nal     Park,     a 
fiiune  sanctuary,  260-261. 

Zoninp,    importance    of,    in    city 
planning,  168-169. 


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THE  AMERICAN  SPIRIT 

A  BASIS  FOR  WORLD  DEMOCRACY 

Edited  by 
Paul  Monroe,  Th-D.,  LL.D.      g„j        Irving  E.  Miller,  Ph.D. 
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THE  American  Spirit,  like  the  American  people,  is  a 
composite.  The  mingled  qualities  of  discoverer,  ex- 
plorer, colonist,  pioneer,  frontiersman,  and  immigrant, 
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I  FORM  AND  FUNCTIONS  OF  | 

i  AMERICAN  GOVERNMENT  I 

j  By  THOMAS  HARRISON  REED  | 

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UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA  LIBRARY 

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